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Using data from the General Social Survey, the study traces educational mobility trajectories for Blacks and Whites by gender over the past century. Ordinary least squares and logistic regression identify three major patterns: substantial closure of gaps for Black men and women at low parental education, greater disadvantage for Black men at the highest parental education, and erosion of early/mid-20th-century advantages for White men, contrasted with steady gains for White women across parental education levels.",{"@graph":69,"@context":123},[70,84,106],{"@type":71,"itemListElement":72},"BreadcrumbList",[73,77,79,82],{"item":74,"name":75,"@type":76,"position":8},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":78,"name":9,"@type":76,"position":14},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/",{"item":80,"name":40,"@type":76,"position":81},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/research-report/",3,{"item":83,"name":65,"@type":76,"position":19},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/intergenerational-education-mobility-trends-by-race-and-gender-in-the-united-states/590666/",{"url":83,"name":65,"@type":85,"image":86,"author":91,"headline":65,"publisher":94,"fileFormat":97,"inLanguage":63,"description":67,"dateModified":98,"datePublished":99,"encodingFormat":97,"isAccessibleForFree":100,"interactionStatistic":101},"DigitalDocument",{"url":87,"@type":88,"width":89,"height":90},"https://docshare.wps.com/thumbnails/intergenerational-education-mobility-trends-by-race-and-gender-in-the-united-states/590666.png","ImageObject",300,407,{"name":92,"@type":93},"Stanley","Person",{"url":74,"name":95,"@type":96},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-10-31","2026-10-15",true,{"@type":102,"interactionType":103,"userInteractionCount":105},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":104},"ViewAction",11,{"@type":107,"mainEntity":108},"FAQPage",[109,115,119],{"name":110,"@type":111,"acceptedAnswer":112},"What dataset does the study use to analyze education mobility?","Question",{"text":113,"@type":114},"The analysis uses data from the General Social Survey (GSS).","Answer",{"name":116,"@type":111,"acceptedAnswer":117},"Which statistical methods are used to identify patterns in intergenerational education mobility?",{"text":118,"@type":114},"The study applies ordinary least squares and logistic regression models to reveal mobility trajectories.",{"name":120,"@type":111,"acceptedAnswer":121},"What happens to education mobility gaps between Blacks and Whites over time?",{"text":122,"@type":114},"Black men and women show substantial closure of gaps at relatively low parental education levels, while Black men remain most disadvantaged at the highest levels of parental education.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":83,"og:type":125,"og:title":65,"og:site_name":95,"og:description":67},"article",{"robots":127,"canonical":83},"index,follow",{"doc_id":129,"site_id":62},590666,1792161115,{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":132},{"doc_id":129,"user_id":133,"nickname":92,"user_avatar":134,"doc_module":4,"category_id":39,"category_name":40,"doc_title":65,"doc_description":67,"doc_content":135,"file_id":136,"file_url":137,"file_type":138,"file_size":139,"view_count":105,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":8,"is_downloadable":8,"audit_status":8,"page_count":140,"language":141,"language_code":63,"site_id":62,"html_lang":63,"table_of_contents":142,"faqs":143,"seo_title":144,"seo_description":67,"update_tm":145,"read_time":146,"preview_page_count":4},2336477405376,"https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/davatar_29158cc5080c5b710cf443261637dec0","AERA Open  \nOctober-December 2016, Vol. 2, No. 4, pp. 1–17 DOI: 10. 1177/2332858416677534 © The Author(s) 2016. [http://ero.sagepub.com](http://ero.sagepub.com)  \nIntergenerational Education Mobility Trends by Race and Gender in the United States  \nJoseph J. Ferrare  \nUniversity of Kentucky  \nResearchers have examined racial and gender patterns of intergenerational education mobility, but less attention has been given to the ways that race and gender interact to further shape these relationships. Based on data from the General Social Survey, this study examined the trajectories of education mobility among Blacks and Whites by gender over the past century. Ordinary least squares and logistic regression models revealed three noteworthy patterns. First, Black men and women have closed substantial gaps with their White counterparts in intergenerational education mobility. At relatively low levels of parental education, these gains have been experienced equally among Black men and women. However, Black men are most disadvantaged at the highest levels of parental education relative to Black women and Whites in general. Finally, the advantages in education mobility experienced by White men in the early and midpart of the 20th century have largely eroded. White women, in contrast, have made steady gains in education mobility across a variety of parental education levels.  \nKeywords: attainment, intergenerational mobility, race, gender, social class, cohort, social stratification  \nIn modern societies that are ostensibly meritocratic—such as the United States—education attainment plays a crucial role in affording access to the resources (e.g., income, cultural capital, social ties) needed to live a flourishing life (Bourdieu, 1996; Massey, 2006) . It should come as no surprise, then, that formal education is one of the primary institutions through which families pass on or acquire advantages across generations. For some families, this may involve maintaining high levels of education from one generation to the next, such as bachelor’s-educated parents working to ensure that their offspring also attain a bachelor’s degree. In other cases, this may involve pursuing higher levels of education, as is the case with families of first-generation college students. Given the importance that this process plays in modern societies, researchers from across the disciplinary spectrum have paid close attention to intergenerational patterns of educational attainment—or what will be referred to here as intergenerational education mobility.  \nOverall growth in intergenerational education mobility in the United States has stalled in recent decades as high school and college completion rates have flattened (Hout & Janus, 2011) . As illustrated in Figure 1, Americans experienced several decades of consistent upward educational mobility (i.e., completing more years of education than their parents) during the mass expansion of the education system. Institutional changes—such as compulsory education laws, financial aid, the GI Bill, civil rights advances, affirmative action policies, job training requirements, and shifting  \nFIGURE 1. Average respondent attainment, parental attainment, and mobility by decade birth cohort for 25-to 65-year-olds. Note. Author’s estimates based on General Social Survey Cumulative File, 1972–2014 (Smith, Marsden, Hout, & Kim, 2015).  \nmarket signals—worked to both incentivize and support an increase in the amount of time that Americans spend in formal education. However, by the 1970s birth cohort, the average educational mobility was \u003C1 year and was only a third of a year among those who are now in their midtwenties to midthirties (i.e., 1980s cohort) . In addition, this longitudinal pattern of mobility appears to have followed a process of maximally maintained inequality (Raftery & Hout, 1993)  \nCreative Commons CC-BY: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License  \n([http://www.creat","cbCaigPddc78hdnn","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaigPddc78hdnn","pdf",789078,17,"English","# Abstract\n## Data and methods\n## Key findings by race and gender","[{\"question\":\"What dataset does the study use to analyze education mobility?\",\"answer\":\"The analysis uses data from the General Social Survey (GSS).\"},{\"question\":\"Which statistical methods are used to identify patterns in intergenerational education mobility?\",\"answer\":\"The study applies ordinary least squares and logistic regression models to reveal mobility trajectories.\"},{\"question\":\"What happens to education mobility gaps between Blacks and Whites over time?\",\"answer\":\"Black men and women show substantial closure of gaps at relatively low parental education levels, while Black men remain most disadvantaged at the highest levels of parental education.\"}]","Intergenerational Education Mobility Trends by Race and Gender in the United States | PDF",1792070163,43]