[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"detail-sidebar-cat-0-en-105":3,"doc-seo-465161-105":59,"doc-detail-465161-en":130},{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":6},0,"success",[7,13,18,23,28,33,38,43,48,51,55],{"id":8,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":10,"show_sort_weight":11,"slug":12},1,"Document","Story & Novel",90,"story-novel",{"id":14,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":15,"show_sort_weight":16,"slug":17},2,"Literature",80,"literature",{"id":19,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":20,"show_sort_weight":21,"slug":22},4,"Exam",70,"exam",{"id":24,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":25,"show_sort_weight":26,"slug":27},5,"Comic",60,"comic",{"id":29,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":30,"show_sort_weight":31,"slug":32},6,"Technology",50,"technology",{"id":34,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":35,"show_sort_weight":36,"slug":37},7,"Healthcare",40,"healthcare",{"id":39,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":40,"show_sort_weight":41,"slug":42},8,"Research & Report",30,"research-report",{"id":44,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":45,"show_sort_weight":46,"slug":47},9,"Religion & Spirituality",20,"religion-spirituality",{"id":46,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":49,"show_sort_weight":46,"slug":50},"World Cup","world-cup",{"id":52,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":53,"show_sort_weight":52,"slug":54},10,"Lifestyle","lifestyle",{"id":56,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":57,"show_sort_weight":24,"slug":58},19,"General","general",{"code":4,"msg":60,"data":61},"ok",{"site_id":62,"language":63,"slug":64,"title":65,"keywords":66,"description":67,"schema_data":68,"social_meta":123,"head_meta":125,"extra_data":127,"updated_unix":129},105,"en","imaging-approaches-for-the-diagnosis-of-dry-eye-a-review","Imaging Approaches for the Diagnosis of Dry Eye - A Review","","Dry eye disease (DED) is a multifactorial disorder of the ocular surface marked by tear film instability, hyperosmolarity, inflammation, and neurosensory abnormalities. Clinical heterogeneity and weak links between symptoms and signs make diagnosis and management challenging. Conventional tools, including symptom questionnaires and tests such as the Schirmer test, suffer from variability and limited sensitivity. This narrative review synthesizes current imaging modalities for non-invasive, high-resolution assessment of ocular structures and tear film dynamics, and highlights future roles for AI-driven analysis and earlier intervention.",{"@graph":69,"@context":122},[70,84,105],{"@type":71,"itemListElement":72},"BreadcrumbList",[73,77,79,82],{"item":74,"name":75,"@type":76,"position":8},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":78,"name":9,"@type":76,"position":14},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/",{"item":80,"name":35,"@type":76,"position":81},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/healthcare/",3,{"item":83,"name":65,"@type":76,"position":19},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/imaging-approaches-for-the-diagnosis-of-dry-eye-a-review/465161/",{"url":83,"name":65,"@type":85,"image":86,"author":91,"headline":65,"publisher":94,"fileFormat":97,"inLanguage":63,"description":67,"dateModified":98,"datePublished":99,"encodingFormat":97,"isAccessibleForFree":100,"interactionStatistic":101},"DigitalDocument",{"url":87,"@type":88,"width":89,"height":90},"https://docshare.wps.com/thumbnails/imaging-approaches-for-the-diagnosis-of-dry-eye-a-review/465161.png","ImageObject",300,407,{"name":92,"@type":93},"River Wang","Person",{"url":74,"name":95,"@type":96},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-11-03","2026-09-30",true,{"@type":102,"interactionType":103,"userInteractionCount":44},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":104},"ViewAction",{"@type":106,"mainEntity":107},"FAQPage",[108,114,118],{"name":109,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":111},"Why is diagnosing dry eye disease difficult?","Question",{"text":112,"@type":113},"DED is multifactorial and clinically heterogeneous, and symptoms often correlate weakly with clinical signs. This makes both diagnosis and treatment planning challenging.","Answer",{"name":115,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":116},"What limitations do conventional dry eye assessments have?",{"text":117,"@type":113},"Symptom questionnaires and basic tests like the Schirmer test can be variable and have limited sensitivity, providing only restricted insight into underlying mechanisms and severity.",{"name":119,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":120},"Which imaging approaches are highlighted for dry eye diagnosis?",{"text":121,"@type":113},"The review summarizes non-invasive, high-resolution modalities such as in vivo confocal microscopy, meibography, anterior segment optical coherence tomography, interferometry, thermography, tear fluorescein clearance, impression cytology, and multifunctional imaging systems.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":83,"og:type":124,"og:title":65,"og:site_name":95,"og:description":67},"article",{"robots":126,"canonical":83},"index,follow",{"doc_id":128,"site_id":62},465161,1790812499,{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":131},{"doc_id":128,"user_id":132,"nickname":92,"user_avatar":133,"doc_module":4,"category_id":34,"category_name":35,"doc_title":65,"doc_description":67,"doc_content":134,"file_id":135,"file_url":136,"file_type":137,"file_size":138,"view_count":44,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":8,"is_downloadable":8,"audit_status":8,"page_count":139,"language":140,"language_code":63,"site_id":62,"html_lang":63,"table_of_contents":141,"faqs":142,"seo_title":143,"seo_description":67,"update_tm":144,"read_time":145,"preview_page_count":4},1099514067438,"https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/avatar/100002539ee87300030?x-image-process=image/resize,m_fixed,w_180,h_180&k=1780474512215547542","Review  \nImaging Approaches for the Diagnosis of Dry Eye: A Review  \nAngelo Macri 1,*, Margherita Tarallo 2 and Michele Iester 2  \n1 IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16132 Genoa, Italy  \n2 Department of Neuroscience, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics, Maternal and Child Health (DiNOGMI), University of Genoa, 16132 Genoa, Italy; [marghe.tarallo@gmail.com](marghe.tarallo@gmail.com) (M.T.); [michele.iester@unige.it](michele.iester@unige.it) (M.I.)  \n* [Correspondence: macria70@gmail.com](Correspondence: macria70@gmail.com)  \nAcademic Editors: Sang Beom Han, Massimiliano Serafino and Alessandra Di Maria  \nReceived: 20 September 2025  \nRevised: 24 December 2025  \nAccepted: 26 December 2025  \nPublished: 1 January 2026  \nCopyright: © 2026 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license.  \nAbstract  \nDry eye disease (DED) is a multifactorial disorder of the ocular surface, characterised by tear film instability, hyperosmolarity, inflammation, and neurosensory abnormalities. Its clinical heterogeneity and the weak correlation between symptoms and signs complicate both diagnosis and management. Conventional assessments, such as patient-reported symptom questionnaires and basic clinical tests like the Schirmer test, are useful; however, their variability and limited sensitivity highlight the need for more reliable and objective diagnostic tools. This narrative review summarises and analyses current imaging approaches used for the diagnosis of DED. A comprehensive literature search was performed in the PubMed and Google Scholar databases to identify relevant studies published up to October 2025 . In recent years, imaging technologies have revolutionised the approach to DED. Modalities such as in vivo confocal microscopy (IVCM), meibography, anterior segment optical coherence tomography (AS-OCT), interferometry, thermography, tear fluorescein clearance, impression cytology, and multifunctional imaging systems allow for non-invasive, high-resolution, and reproducible assessment of ocular surface structures and tear film dynamics. The integration of these techniques into clinical practice supports amore personalised management of DED. Future directions include further technological refinements and the application of artificial intelligence (AI) to imaging analysis, with the potential to enhance diagnostic precision and facilitate earlier intervention. While imaging cannot replace a thorough clinical examination, it has become an essential adjunct that significantly enriches the evaluation and management of patients with DED.  \nKeywords: dry eye disease; imaging techniques; diagnosis and management of DED  \n1. Introduction  \nDry Eye Disease (DED) is a multifaceted condition that significantly affects the quality of life for millions of individuals worldwide [1] . It is a highly prevalent, multifactorial disorder of the ocular surface that results in tear film instability, hyperosmolarity, inflammation, and neurosensory abnormalities [2] . This instability triggers inflammation and damage to the ocular surface, as well as altered nociceptive responses, which collectively cause ocular discomfort and reduce visual function [3] .  \nThe eyelids play a crucial role in maintaining the ocular surface system, as they directly influence tear film regeneration, stability, and clearance, while also protecting the ocular surface and indirectly supporting neuroendocrine–immune functions mediated by the tear film. Alterations in eyelid structure or function can disrupt this balance, leading to ocular surface system failure and potentially causing or aggravating DED [4] . Common  \nsymptoms of DED include constant itching, redness, dryness, and a burning feeling, often accompanied by a persistent foreign body sensation, light sensitivity, and blurred vision [2] .  \nIn epidemiological studies, the prevalence of D","cbCaiox0TZ3cffy9","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaiox0TZ3cffy9","pdf",798819,14,"English","# Introduction\n## Imaging and the diagnostic challenge in DED\n# Conventional approaches and their limitations\n## Need for objective imaging tools\n# Aim and scope of the review\n## Overview of current imaging approaches","[{\"question\":\"Why is diagnosing dry eye disease difficult?\",\"answer\":\"DED is multifactorial and clinically heterogeneous, and symptoms often correlate weakly with clinical signs. This makes both diagnosis and treatment planning challenging.\"},{\"question\":\"What limitations do conventional dry eye assessments have?\",\"answer\":\"Symptom questionnaires and basic tests like the Schirmer test can be variable and have limited sensitivity, providing only restricted insight into underlying mechanisms and severity.\"},{\"question\":\"Which imaging approaches are highlighted for dry eye diagnosis?\",\"answer\":\"The review summarizes non-invasive, high-resolution modalities such as in vivo confocal microscopy, meibography, anterior segment optical coherence tomography, interferometry, thermography, tear fluorescein clearance, impression cytology, and multifunctional imaging systems.\"}]","Imaging Approaches for the Diagnosis of Dry Eye - A Review | PDF",1790769254,35]