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This review reconstructs, in broader historical perspective, the observational discoveries and theoretical arguments that led the scientific community to adopt dark matter within the standard cosmological model. It surveys 20th-century developments, from early dynamical estimates to current efforts to determine its particle nature, combining analysis of primary sources with modern synthesis.",{"@graph":69,"@context":122},[70,84,105],{"@type":71,"itemListElement":72},"BreadcrumbList",[73,77,79,82],{"item":74,"name":75,"@type":76,"position":8},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":78,"name":9,"@type":76,"position":14},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/",{"item":80,"name":40,"@type":76,"position":81},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/research-report/",3,{"item":83,"name":65,"@type":76,"position":19},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/history-of-dark-matter-review-of-modern-physics-volume-90-octoberdecember-2018/504974/",{"url":83,"name":65,"@type":85,"image":86,"author":91,"headline":65,"publisher":94,"fileFormat":97,"inLanguage":63,"description":67,"dateModified":98,"datePublished":99,"encodingFormat":97,"isAccessibleForFree":100,"interactionStatistic":101},"DigitalDocument",{"url":87,"@type":88,"width":89,"height":90},"https://docshare.wps.com/thumbnails/history-of-dark-matter-review-of-modern-physics-volume-90-octoberdecember-2018/504974.png","ImageObject",300,407,{"name":92,"@type":93},"vwvw","Person",{"url":74,"name":95,"@type":96},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-10-17","2026-10-04",true,{"@type":102,"interactionType":103,"userInteractionCount":29},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":104},"ViewAction",{"@type":106,"mainEntity":107},"FAQPage",[108,114,118],{"name":109,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":111},"What is the main goal of the review on dark matter?","Question",{"text":112,"@type":113},"To provide a broader historical perspective on the observational discoveries and theoretical arguments that led to dark matter being adopted as essential within the standard cosmological model.","Answer",{"name":115,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":116},"Which time period does the review focus on most?",{"text":117,"@type":113},"The review’s focus is the 20th century, starting with early dynamical estimates of dark matter’s abundance and extending to its role in the current standard cosmological model and strategies to reveal its particle nature.",{"name":119,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":120},"How does the review ground its historical analysis?",{"text":121,"@type":113},"It is largely based on analysis of primary sources, including scanned versions of scientific articles and books from the 19th and 20th centuries, accessible through NASA ADS and the Internet Archive.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":83,"og:type":124,"og:title":65,"og:site_name":95,"og:description":67},"article",{"robots":126,"canonical":83},"index,follow",{"doc_id":128,"site_id":62},504974,1791413795,{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":131},{"doc_id":128,"user_id":132,"nickname":92,"user_avatar":133,"doc_module":4,"category_id":39,"category_name":40,"doc_title":65,"doc_description":67,"doc_content":134,"file_id":135,"file_url":136,"file_type":137,"file_size":138,"view_count":29,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":8,"is_downloadable":8,"audit_status":8,"page_count":139,"language":140,"language_code":63,"site_id":62,"html_lang":63,"table_of_contents":141,"faqs":142,"seo_title":143,"seo_description":67,"update_tm":144,"read_time":145},3985747874149,"https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/avatar/3a001161165b4dc3d9e?x-image-process=image/resize,m_fixed,w_180,h_180&k=1790129441039064114","UvA-DARE (Digital Academic Repository)  \nHistory of dark matter  \nBertone, G. ; Hooper, D.  \nDOI  \n10.1103/RevModPhys.90.045002  \nPublication date  \n2018  \nDocument Version  \nFinal published version  \nPublished in  \nReviews of Modern Physics  \nLink to publication  \nCitation for published version (APA):  \nBertone, G. , & Hooper, D. (2018) . History of dark matter. Reviews of Modern Physics, 90(4), Article 045002. [https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.90.045002](https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.90.045002)  \nGeneral rights  \nIt is not permitted to download or to forward/distribute the text or part of it without the consent of the author(s) and/or copyright holder(s), other than for strictly personal, individual use, unless the work is under an open content license (like Creative Commons) .  \nDisclaimer/Complaints regulations  \nIf you believe that digital publication of certain material infringes any of your rights or (privacy) interests, please let the Library know, stating your reasons. In case of a legitimate complaint, the Library will make the material inaccessible and/or remove it from the website. Please Ask the Library: [https://uba.uva.nl/en/contact](https://uba.uva.nl/en/contact), or a letter to: Library of the University of Amsterdam, Secretariat, P.O. Box 19185 , 1000 GD Amsterdam, The Netherlands. You will be contacted as soon as possible.  \nUvA-DARE is a service provided by the library of the University of Amsterdam ( [http](https://dare. uva. nl)[s](https://dare. uva. nl)[://dare. uva. nl](https://dare. uva. nl))  \nDownload date:04 Oct 2026  \nREVIEWS OF MODERN PHYSICS, VOLUME 90, OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2018 History of dark matter  \nGianfranco Bertone  \nGRAPPA, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904 1098XH Amsterdam, Netherlands  \nDan Hooper  \nCenter for Particle Astrophysics, Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory,  \nBatavia, Illinois 60510, USA  \nand Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, The University of Chicago,  \nChicago, Illinois 60637, USA  \n (published 15 October 2018)  \nAlthough dark matter is a central element of modern cosmology, the history of how it became accepted as part of the dominant paradigm is often ignored or condensed into an anecdotal account focused around the work of a few pioneering scientists. The aim of this review is to provide a broader historical perspective on the observational discoveries and the theoretical arguments that led the scientific community to adopt dark matter as an essential part of the standard cosmological model.  \nDOI: 10.1103/RevModPhys.90.045002  \nCONTENTS  \nI. Preface 1  \nII. Prehistory 2  \nA. From Epicurus to Galileo 2  \nB. Dark stars, dark planets, dark clouds 3  \nC. Dynamical evidence 3  \nIII. Galaxy Clusters 4  \nA. Zwicky and Smith 4  \nB. A confusing situation 6  \nIV. Galactic Rotation Curves 7  \nA. The beginnings 7  \nB. The 1970s revolution 8  \nC. Local measurements 10  \nV. Baryonic Dark Matter 11  \nA. Gravitational microlensing 11  \nB. The Universe’s baryon budget 12  \nC. Primordial black holes 13  \nVI. Modified Gravity 13  \nA. Toward a realistic theory of MOND 13  \nB. Observational successes and failures 14  \nVII. Dark Matter Particles 15  \nA. Neutrinos 15  \nB. Supersymmetry 17  \nC. Axions 19  \nD. The WIMP paradigm 20  \nVIII. Piecing the Puzzle 21  \nA. Discrepancies at all scales 21  \nB. Cosmology 22  \nC. Numerical simulations 22  \nIX. The Hunt for Dark Matter Particles 24  \nA. Scattering with nuclei 24  \nB. Annihilation and decay 25  \nC. Axion experiments 27  \nAcknowledgments 27  \nAppendix: Further Reading 27  \nReferences 28  \nI. PREFACE  \nDark matter plays a central role in our understanding of modern cosmology. But despite its significance, many of the scientists active in this area of research know relatively little about its interesting history and how it came to be accepted asthe standard explanation for a wide variety of astrophysical observations. Most publications and presentations on this topic—whether at a technical or a popular level—either ignore","cbCaic6oK2dORsmq","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaic6oK2dORsmq","pdf",2508085,33,"English","# Preface\n# Prehistory\n## From Epicurus to Galileo\n## Dark stars, dark planets, dark clouds\n## Dynamical evidence\n# Galaxy Clusters\n## Zwicky and Smith\n## A confusing situation\n# Galactic Rotation Curves\n## The beginnings\n## The 1970s revolution\n## Local measurements\n# Baryonic Dark Matter\n## Gravitational microlensing\n## The Universe’s baryon budget\n## Primordial black holes\n# Modified Gravity\n## Toward a realistic theory of MOND\n## Observational successes and failures\n# Dark Matter Particles\n## Neutrinos\n## Supersymmetry\n## Axions\n## The WIMP paradigm\n# Piecing the Puzzle\n## Discrepancies at all scales\n## Cosmology\n## Numerical simulations\n# The Hunt for Dark Matter Particles\n## Scattering with nuclei\n## Annihilation and decay\n## Axion experiments","[{\"question\":\"What is the main goal of the review on dark matter?\",\"answer\":\"To provide a broader historical perspective on the observational discoveries and theoretical arguments that led to dark matter being adopted as essential within the standard cosmological model.\"},{\"question\":\"Which time period does the review focus on most?\",\"answer\":\"The review’s focus is the 20th century, starting with early dynamical estimates of dark matter’s abundance and extending to its role in the current standard cosmological model and strategies to reveal its particle nature.\"},{\"question\":\"How does the review ground its historical analysis?\",\"answer\":\"It is largely based on analysis of primary sources, including scanned versions of scientific articles and books from the 19th and 20th centuries, accessible through NASA ADS and the Internet Archive.\"}]","History of dark matter - Review of Modern Physics Volume 90 - October–December 2018 | PDF",1791081939,83]