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Combining newly gathered student perception data on major traits with Education Longitudinal Study 2002 (ELS:2002) results show perceived gender bias against women is the strongest predictor of female representation across majors, while the perceived math/science orientation matters less. Findings are replicated with a separate sample measuring major traits, emphasizing inclusion of major-level traits in future research on gender gaps in major choices.",{"@graph":69,"@context":122},[70,84,105],{"@type":71,"itemListElement":72},"BreadcrumbList",[73,77,79,82],{"item":74,"name":75,"@type":76,"position":8},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":78,"name":9,"@type":76,"position":14},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/",{"item":80,"name":40,"@type":76,"position":81},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/research-report/",3,{"item":83,"name":65,"@type":76,"position":19},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/gender-equity-in-college-majors-looking-beyond-the-stemnon-stem-dichotomy-for-answers-regarding-female-participation/590626/",{"url":83,"name":65,"@type":85,"image":86,"author":91,"headline":65,"publisher":94,"fileFormat":97,"inLanguage":63,"description":67,"dateModified":98,"datePublished":99,"encodingFormat":97,"isAccessibleForFree":100,"interactionStatistic":101},"DigitalDocument",{"url":87,"@type":88,"width":89,"height":90},"https://docshare.wps.com/thumbnails/gender-equity-in-college-majors-looking-beyond-the-stemnon-stem-dichotomy-for-answers-regarding-female-participation/590626.png","ImageObject",300,407,{"name":92,"@type":93},"Stanley","Person",{"url":74,"name":95,"@type":96},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-11-06","2026-10-15",true,{"@type":102,"interactionType":103,"userInteractionCount":24},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":104},"ViewAction",{"@type":106,"mainEntity":107},"FAQPage",[108,114,118],{"name":109,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":111},"What factor best predicts female participation in college majors in this study?","Question",{"text":112,"@type":113},"Perceived gender bias against women emerges as the dominant predictor of the gender balance in college majors.","Answer",{"name":115,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":116},"How important is whether students perceive a major as math or science oriented?",{"text":117,"@type":113},"The perception of the major being math or science oriented is less important than perceived gender bias.",{"name":119,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":120},"Why do the authors argue for looking beyond the STEM/non-STEM dichotomy?",{"text":121,"@type":113},"The STEM/non-STEM classification is inconsistent and can be misleading, and women’s representation varies across non-STEM fields as well.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":83,"og:type":124,"og:title":65,"og:site_name":95,"og:description":67},"article",{"robots":126,"canonical":83},"index,follow",{"doc_id":128,"site_id":62},590626,1792191042,{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":131},{"doc_id":128,"user_id":132,"nickname":92,"user_avatar":133,"doc_module":4,"category_id":39,"category_name":40,"doc_title":65,"doc_description":67,"doc_content":134,"file_id":135,"file_url":136,"file_type":137,"file_size":138,"view_count":24,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":8,"is_downloadable":8,"audit_status":8,"page_count":139,"language":140,"language_code":63,"site_id":62,"html_lang":63,"table_of_contents":141,"faqs":142,"seo_title":143,"seo_description":67,"update_tm":144,"read_time":145,"preview_page_count":4},2336477405376,"https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/davatar_29158cc5080c5b710cf443261637dec0","American Educational Research Journal June 2018, Vol. 55, No. 3, pp. 453–487 DOI: 10.3102/0002831217740221  \n􀀂 2017 AERA. [http://aerj](http://aerj).[aera.net](aera.net)  \nGender Equity in College Majors: Looking Beyond the STEM/Non-STEM Dichotomy for Answers Regarding Female  \nParticipation  \nColleen M. Ganley  \nFlorida State University  \nCasey E. George  \nUniversity of Louisville  \nJoseph R. Cimpian  \nNew York University  \nMartha B. Makowski  \nUniversity of Alabama  \nWomen are underrepresented in many science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) majors and in some non-STEM majors (e.g., philosophy) . Combining newly gathered data on students’perceptions of college major traits with data from the Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), we find that perceived gender bias against women emerges asthe dominant predictor of the gender balance in college majors. The perception of the major being math or science oriented is less important. We replicate these findings using a separate sample to measure college major traits. Results suggest the need to incorporate major-level traits in research on  \nCOLLEEN M. GANLEY is an assistant professor of developmental psychology and in the Florida Center for Research in STEM in the Learning Systems Institute at Florida State University, 1107 West Call St. Tallahassee, FL 32304; [e-mail:](e-mail: ganley@psy f. su.edu. Her)[ ganley@psy f. su.edu](e-mail: ganley@psy f. su.edu. Her)[. Her](e-mail: ganley@psy f. su.edu. Her)[ ](e-mail: ganley@psy f. su.edu. Her)research focuses on the social, cognitive, and affective factors related to math learning and achievement with a specific interest in gender and income level.  \nCASEY E. GEORGE, PhD, is an assistant professor of higher education at the University of Louisville. Her research efforts are focused on expanding postsecondary access and equity for traditionally marginalized populations.  \nJOSEPH R. CIMPIAN, PhD, is an associate professor of economics and education policy in the Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development at New York University. His research focuses on the use of novel and rigorous methods to study equity and policy, particularly concerning sexuality, gender, and language.  \nMARTHA B. MAKOWSKI, PhD, is an assistant professor of mathematics at the University of Alabama. Her research focuses on issues of access in the curriculum and instruction of postsecondary math classrooms, particularly for developmental math students.  \nGanley et al.  \ngender gaps in college major choices and the need to recognize the impact of perceptions of potential gender discrimination on college major choices.  \nKEYWORDS: gender, higher education, propensity score matching, STEM  \nomen’s continued underrepresentation in many science, technology,  \nWpolicyengmakineeres,ringedu, caantdorsm, athandemraetsiecasrc(STEM) fihers arouenldsdtremainshe worlda(concern foBlickenstaffr, 2005; Ceci, Williams, & Barnett, 2009; Hill, Corbett, & St. Rose, 2010; National Science Board [NSB], 2010; National Strategic Review of Mathematical Sciences Research in Australia, 2006; Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, 2010) . In certain STEM fields, the gender gap has closed or narrowed. For example, in 2012, women—who made up 56% of all college students that year (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2014)—earned nearly 60% of bachelor’s degrees in the biological sciences and 41% of bachelor’s degrees in the physical sciences (National Science Foundation [NSF], 2014) . In contrast, only 18% of bachelor’s degrees in computer science and 19% of bachelor’s degrees in engineering were awarded to women in 2012 (NSF, 2014) . Researchers are still trying to understand the factors that steer women away from certain majors within STEM given the lack of improvement in gender balance in some STEM fields at the undergraduate level. With a gross gender imbalance still characterizing a number of STEM fields, public an","cbCaivDBCLb54xYH","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaivDBCLb54xYH","pdf",647041,35,"English","# Introduction\n## Background and Rationale\n## Limitations of the STEM/Non-STEM Dichotomy\n# Study Approach and Data\n## Student Perceptions and ELS:2002\n## Replication With a Separate Sample\n# Findings and Implications\n## Perceived Gender Bias as Predictor\n## Need to Incorporate Major-Level Traits","[{\"question\":\"What factor best predicts female participation in college majors in this study?\",\"answer\":\"Perceived gender bias against women emerges as the dominant predictor of the gender balance in college majors.\"},{\"question\":\"How important is whether students perceive a major as math or science oriented?\",\"answer\":\"The perception of the major being math or science oriented is less important than perceived gender bias.\"},{\"question\":\"Why do the authors argue for looking beyond the STEM/non-STEM dichotomy?\",\"answer\":\"The STEM/non-STEM classification is inconsistent and can be misleading, and women’s representation varies across non-STEM fields as well.\"}]","Gender Equity in College Majors: Looking Beyond the STEM/Non-STEM Dichotomy for Answers Regarding Female Participation | PDF",1792070083,88]