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It compares English monolinguals, Chinese-English bilinguals, and Chinese-English biliterates (N = 30), focusing on formulation processes that convert thoughts into linguistic and written form. Results show distinct writing-behaviour patterns across groups, with monolinguals using vocabulary strategically and biliterates/bilinguals showing prospective and retrospective behaviours. Findings are interpreted through writing-process and bilingualism effects research.",{"@graph":69,"@context":122},[70,84,105],{"@type":71,"itemListElement":72},"BreadcrumbList",[73,77,79,82],{"item":74,"name":75,"@type":76,"position":8},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":78,"name":9,"@type":76,"position":14},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/",{"item":80,"name":40,"@type":76,"position":81},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/research-report/",3,{"item":83,"name":65,"@type":76,"position":19},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/formulation-processes-of-monolingual-bilingual-and-biliterate-writers-effects-of-biliteracy/593973/",{"url":83,"name":65,"@type":85,"image":86,"author":91,"headline":65,"publisher":94,"fileFormat":97,"inLanguage":63,"description":67,"dateModified":98,"datePublished":99,"encodingFormat":97,"isAccessibleForFree":100,"interactionStatistic":101},"DigitalDocument",{"url":87,"@type":88,"width":89,"height":90},"https://docshare.wps.com/thumbnails/formulation-processes-of-monolingual-bilingual-and-biliterate-writers-effects-of-biliteracy/593973.png","ImageObject",300,407,{"name":92,"@type":93},"Franzy","Person",{"url":74,"name":95,"@type":96},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-10-31","2026-10-15",true,{"@type":102,"interactionType":103,"userInteractionCount":39},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":104},"ViewAction",{"@type":106,"mainEntity":107},"FAQPage",[108,114,118],{"name":109,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":111},"What does the study investigate about writers’ formulation?","Question",{"text":112,"@type":113},"The study examines how monolingual, bilingual, and biliterate writers convert ideas into language and written sentences during formulation.","Answer",{"name":115,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":116},"Which writer groups are compared in the study?",{"text":117,"@type":113},"It compares English monolinguals, Chinese-English bilinguals, and Chinese-English biliterates (N = 30).",{"name":119,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":120},"What main differences in writing behaviour are reported across groups?",{"text":121,"@type":113},"Monolinguals show strategic vocabulary use, while biliterates and bilinguals show prospective and retrospective behaviours when formulating.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":83,"og:type":124,"og:title":65,"og:site_name":95,"og:description":67},"article",{"robots":126,"canonical":83},"index,follow",{"doc_id":128,"site_id":62},593973,1792191115,{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":131},{"doc_id":128,"user_id":132,"nickname":92,"user_avatar":133,"doc_module":4,"category_id":39,"category_name":40,"doc_title":65,"doc_description":67,"doc_content":134,"file_id":135,"file_url":136,"file_type":137,"file_size":138,"view_count":39,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":8,"is_downloadable":8,"audit_status":8,"page_count":46,"language":139,"language_code":63,"site_id":62,"html_lang":63,"table_of_contents":140,"faqs":141,"seo_title":142,"seo_description":67,"update_tm":143,"read_time":31,"preview_page_count":4},2336478945519,"https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/davatar_085a072bc5b1113ac321206ff7593b45","| |  |\n| --- | --- |\n| Australian Journal ofApplied Linguistics, 3(3), 213–232 (2020) [https://doi.org/10.29140/ajal.v3n3.353](https://doi.org/10.29140/ajal.v3n3.353) |  |\n| Formulation processes of monolingual, bilingual, and biliterate writers: Effects of biliteracy | |\n| ELAINE NG a\u003Cbr>a The Chinese University of HongKong, HongKong [elaine.ng@cuhk.edu.hk](elaine.ng@cuhk.edu.hk) |  |\n| Abstract\u003Cbr>By looking beyond their written products into what they do as they write, this mixed methods study offers insights into the writing process of writers who have mastered one language and those who have mastered two. It investigates the cognitive effects of bilingualism and biliteracy on the writing processes of years ten and eleven Sydney high school writers across three groups (N = 30): English monolinguals, Chinese-English bilinguals, and Chinese-English biliterates, focusing on their formulation processes (i.e., how thoughts are converted into language and the written form) . Findings indicate distinctive features and patterns of writing behaviours, possibly reflecting specific strengthsand weaknesses for each group. The monolinguals demonstrated strategic use of vocabulary, while the biliterates and bilinguals demonstrated prospective and retrospective behaviours when formulating. These findings are discussed in light of studies on the writing process and on the effects of bilingualism.\u003Cbr>Keywords: writing processes, formulation processes, problem-solving formulation, bilingualism, biliteracy |  |\n\nBackground – The Writing Process and the Effects of Biliteracy  \nThis study bridges writing process research and research on the effects of bilingualism and biliteracy with a focus on the formulation processes of monolingual, bilingual, and biliterate writers. Over the past decades, these processes have been studied extensively (e.g., Chenoweth & Hayes, 2001; Flower & Hayes, 1981; Galbraith & Baaijen, 2019; Koutsoftas, 2018; Lincoln & Ben Idris, 2015; Stapleton, 2010). This body of research has identified the act of writing as involving three distinct sub-processes: planning, formulating, and revising. Planning is widely understood as conceptualisation, structuring, and goal-setting before writing occurs (Flower & Hayes, 1981) . Formulating is the actual converting of proposed thoughts and ideas into language and written sentences. Revising is the reviewing or modifying of both proposed and written language (Chenoweth & Hayes, 2001) . Reading is also considered a frequent, recurring sub-process, as writers frequently read as they write (Stevenson, 2005) .  \nDuring a writing task these sub-processes are non-linear, dynamic, recursive, and unsystematic (Alamargot & Chanquoy, 2001) .  \nFormulation, which is the main focus of this study, is frequently and particularly a complex sub-process in which writers engage. When writing, the ability to convert multiple ideas into grammatical and meaningful sentences requires conscious effort and time to master. Exercising such an ability, which depends largely on knowledge about writing and the topic, and the integration of thoughts, conceptualisation, and linguistic form, is a complex process. Converting an idea into a sentence when the task is easy may be simple, but this is often not the case. Interruptions to fluent formulation are possible, whether these are related to writing or language problems or to pause or self-reflect. To date, few studies have specifically examined writers’ problem-solving formulation (e.g., Roca de Larios et al., 1999 & 2006). These studies have identified a small number of formulation behaviours or strategies of second language (L2), or less proficient writers, including backtracking (i.e., continuous eyemovements between already written text and emerging text) to aid further formulating, compensatory strategies to search for linguistic equivalents when writers are unable to produce a precise word or expression, and upgrading strategies to improve an expression.  \nM","cbCaihGua4s0wNZ4","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaihGua4s0wNZ4","pdf",476212,"English","# Abstract\n# Background – The Writing Process and the Effects of Biliteracy\n## Core sub-processes in writing\n## Formulating as a complex problem-solving activity\n## Bilingualism, biliteracy, and cognitive advantages\n## Gaps in research on biliteracy and writing","[{\"question\":\"What does the study investigate about writers’ formulation?\",\"answer\":\"The study examines how monolingual, bilingual, and biliterate writers convert ideas into language and written sentences during formulation.\"},{\"question\":\"Which writer groups are compared in the study?\",\"answer\":\"It compares English monolinguals, Chinese-English bilinguals, and Chinese-English biliterates (N = 30).\"},{\"question\":\"What main differences in writing behaviour are reported across groups?\",\"answer\":\"Monolinguals show strategic vocabulary use, while biliterates and bilinguals show prospective and retrospective behaviours when formulating.\"}]","Formulation processes of monolingual, bilingual, and biliterate writers - Effects of biliteracy | PDF",1792078290]