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The discussion reviews critiques of NCLB, including weak enforcement and mismatches across standards, and argues that the extent of real parent engagement remains unclear. Using Critical Race Theory, the study centers counterstorytelling to analyze the intersection of race and class, addressing accountability indicators and subgroup performance patterns.",{"@graph":69,"@context":122},[70,84,105],{"@type":71,"itemListElement":72},"BreadcrumbList",[73,77,79,82],{"item":74,"name":75,"@type":76,"position":8},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":78,"name":9,"@type":76,"position":14},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/",{"item":80,"name":20,"@type":76,"position":81},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/exam/",3,{"item":83,"name":65,"@type":76,"position":19},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/examining-parent-involvement-in-reversing-the-underachievement-of-african-american-students-in-middle-class-schools/603382/",{"url":83,"name":65,"@type":85,"image":86,"author":91,"headline":65,"publisher":94,"fileFormat":97,"inLanguage":63,"description":67,"dateModified":98,"datePublished":99,"encodingFormat":97,"isAccessibleForFree":100,"interactionStatistic":101},"DigitalDocument",{"url":87,"@type":88,"width":89,"height":90},"https://docshare.wps.com/thumbnails/examining-parent-involvement-in-reversing-the-underachievement-of-african-american-students-in-middle-class-schools/603382.png","ImageObject",300,407,{"name":92,"@type":93},"moss~","Person",{"url":74,"name":95,"@type":96},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-10-16","2026-10-15",true,{"@type":102,"interactionType":103,"userInteractionCount":8},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":104},"ViewAction",{"@type":106,"mainEntity":107},"FAQPage",[108,114,118],{"name":109,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":111},"What does NCLB claim about parent involvement, and what is questioned by critics?","Question",{"text":112,"@type":113},"NCLB frames parent involvement as a partnership that envisions parents with governance power. Critics question the extent of actual engagement because enforcement mechanisms and state/local compliance are not clearly ensured.","Answer",{"name":115,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":116},"Why does the study use Critical Race Theory (CRT)?",{"text":117,"@type":113},"CRT is used to examine parent involvement through an explicit intersection of race and class. It also supports counterstorytelling so that parent voice can be central to the analysis.",{"name":119,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":120},"How do accountability measures like AYP affect how schools are evaluated?",{"text":121,"@type":113},"Schools must show evidence of continuous progress for all subgroups by meeting annual benchmarks such as test scores and attendance. Schools failing to meet targets for any subgroup can be labeled in need of improvement, limiting the ability to rely on overall averages.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":83,"og:type":124,"og:title":65,"og:site_name":95,"og:description":67},"article",{"robots":126,"canonical":83},"index,follow",{"doc_id":128,"site_id":62},603382,1792120893,{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":131},{"doc_id":128,"user_id":132,"nickname":92,"user_avatar":133,"doc_module":4,"category_id":19,"category_name":20,"doc_title":65,"doc_description":67,"doc_content":134,"file_id":135,"file_url":136,"file_type":137,"file_size":138,"view_count":8,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":8,"is_downloadable":8,"audit_status":8,"page_count":46,"language":139,"language_code":63,"site_id":62,"html_lang":63,"table_of_contents":140,"faqs":141,"seo_title":142,"seo_description":67,"update_tm":143,"read_time":31},962090895452,"https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/davatar_a8503ba1806abce46bf441b54a3ca4cd","Examining Parent Involvement in Reversing the Underachievement of African American Students in Middle-Class Schools  \nBy Tyrone C. Howard & Rema Reynolds  \nTyrone C. Howard is an associate professor and Rema Reynolds is a doctoral student, both with the Graduate School of Education and Information Studies at the University of California, Los Angeles.  \nIntroduced in 2001, No Child Left Behind (NCLB) was hailed as the most significant education legislation since the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965. The legislation purported to be a “landmark in education reform designed to improve student achievement and change the culture ofAmerica’s schools”(U.S. Department of Education, 2003, p. 1). Shortly after the enactment, the billwas scrutinized by school officialsand policy makers and later criticized for multiple reasons, such as a lack of funding, an overemphasis on testing, and inconsistency in standards at the federal, state and local levels (Dingerson, Beam, & Brown, 2004). Despite the criticism that NCLB has received over the past five years, there are some promising features ofthe legislation that seek to involve various historically excluded stakeholders in the educational process (Fege & Smith, 2002) and empower parents with decision-makingpower  \n(Rogers, 2006; U.S. Department of Education, 2003) . Central to its mission was the assurance of academic success for all students through authentic partnerships between schools, parents and communities. Parent involvement is specifically addressed by the authors of NCLB and loosely described in the legislation as a partnership that envisions parents with governance power within a democratic process (Rogers, 2006) .  \nWhile the provision seeks to mandate parent engagement in schools, what remains unclear under NCLB’s parent involvement mandate is the extent to which parents are actually engaged in schools. One consistent critique of NCLB posits that it falls short in providing enforcement mechanisms to ensure compliance atthe state and local levels (Davis, 2004) . School systems cannot be sure that schools are actually complying with the federal mandate. Moreover, school officials cannot determine the roles race and class play when parents do make efforts to assume leadership roles in schools. Therefore, we, the researchers, seek to gain insight into these issues through this work.  \nAsthe authors of this study, we examined the school experiences of middle-class African American parents and students, because they are largely overlooked in the professional literature when it comes to underachievement and parent involvement. Although NCLB highlights parent involvement and school accountability through the use of test data, we posit that non-White and non-Asian students in middle-class schools are frequently overlookedin the reporting andinvestigation ofschool achievement, particularly as it relates to parental involvement and engagement. Using Critical Race Theory (CRT) (Ladson-Bilings &Tate, 1995; Solorzano, 1998) as a conceptual framework to examine parent involvement as it pertains to African Americans in middle-class1 schools, we attempt to account for an explicit intersection of race and class to be used in our analysis. CRT allows for the incorporation of counterstorytelling as a methodological tool so that parent voice can be a focus of this study.  \nBecause NCLB’s emphasis on providing equal access to quality instruction to students of color, low income populations, and students with disabilities, it is clear that schools must be in compliance with this mandate. Further, educators must provide focused attention and additional resources to subgroups who fail to reach established performance benchmarks (U.S. Department of Education, 2005) . To this end, schools are required to show evidence of“continuous progress” towards academic goals by meeting an annual benchmark for all subgroups within the school and demonstrate adequate yearly progress (AYP). TheAYP benchma","cbCaioFpSNL9ggSY","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaioFpSNL9ggSY","pdf",155062,"English","# Background: NCLB and Parent Involvement\n# Research Focus and Open Questions\n# Conceptual Framework: Critical Race Theory\n# Accountability, AYP, and Subgroup Performance\n# African American Underachievement in Middle-Class Schools","[{\"question\":\"What does NCLB claim about parent involvement, and what is questioned by critics?\",\"answer\":\"NCLB frames parent involvement as a partnership that envisions parents with governance power. Critics question the extent of actual engagement because enforcement mechanisms and state/local compliance are not clearly ensured.\"},{\"question\":\"Why does the study use Critical Race Theory (CRT)?\",\"answer\":\"CRT is used to examine parent involvement through an explicit intersection of race and class. It also supports counterstorytelling so that parent voice can be central to the analysis.\"},{\"question\":\"How do accountability measures like AYP affect how schools are evaluated?\",\"answer\":\"Schools must show evidence of continuous progress for all subgroups by meeting annual benchmarks such as test scores and attendance. Schools failing to meet targets for any subgroup can be labeled in need of improvement, limiting the ability to rely on overall averages.\"}]","Examining Parent Involvement in Reversing the Underachievement of African American Students in Middle-Class Schools | PDF",1792096158]