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A multilevel logistic regression model estimates overall ODR disproportionality, while significant cases undergo multilevel pattern analyses of subjectively defined ODRs across student ethnicity, time of day, location, severity of behavior, and gender. Findings identify notable differences in subjective ODR patterns at the high school level.",{"@graph":69,"@context":123},[70,84,106],{"@type":71,"itemListElement":72},"BreadcrumbList",[73,77,79,82],{"item":74,"name":75,"@type":76,"position":8},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":78,"name":9,"@type":76,"position":14},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/",{"item":80,"name":40,"@type":76,"position":81},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/research-report/",3,{"item":83,"name":65,"@type":76,"position":19},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/examination-of-american-indianalaska-native-school-discipline-disproportionality-using-the-vulnerable-decision-points-approach/594807/",{"url":83,"name":65,"@type":85,"image":86,"author":91,"headline":65,"publisher":94,"fileFormat":97,"inLanguage":63,"description":67,"dateModified":98,"datePublished":99,"encodingFormat":97,"isAccessibleForFree":100,"interactionStatistic":101},"DigitalDocument",{"url":87,"@type":88,"width":89,"height":90},"https://docshare.wps.com/thumbnails/examination-of-american-indianalaska-native-school-discipline-disproportionality-using-the-vulnerable-decision-points-approach/594807.png","ImageObject",300,407,{"name":92,"@type":93},"Mary Man","Person",{"url":74,"name":95,"@type":96},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-10-30","2026-10-15",true,{"@type":102,"interactionType":103,"userInteractionCount":105},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":104},"ViewAction",11,{"@type":107,"mainEntity":108},"FAQPage",[109,115,119],{"name":110,"@type":111,"acceptedAnswer":112},"What does the study examine regarding AIAN and White students?","Question",{"text":113,"@type":114},"The study examines the extent of racial disproportionality in office discipline referrals (ODRs) between AIAN and White students across school levels.","Answer",{"name":116,"@type":111,"acceptedAnswer":117},"How is the disproportionality measured?",{"text":118,"@type":114},"Overall levels of ODR disproportionality are assessed using a multilevel logistic regression model.",{"name":120,"@type":111,"acceptedAnswer":121},"What factors are analyzed when disproportionality is significant?",{"text":122,"@type":114},"For school levels with significant disproportionality, ODR patterns are analyzed by student ethnicity, time of day, location, severity of problem behavior, and student gender.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":83,"og:type":125,"og:title":65,"og:site_name":95,"og:description":67},"article",{"robots":127,"canonical":83},"index,follow",{"doc_id":129,"site_id":62},594807,1792131495,{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":132},{"doc_id":129,"user_id":133,"nickname":92,"user_avatar":134,"doc_module":4,"category_id":39,"category_name":40,"doc_title":65,"doc_description":67,"doc_content":135,"file_id":136,"file_url":137,"file_type":138,"file_size":139,"view_count":105,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":8,"is_downloadable":8,"audit_status":8,"page_count":140,"language":141,"language_code":63,"site_id":62,"html_lang":63,"table_of_contents":142,"faqs":143,"seo_title":144,"seo_description":67,"update_tm":145,"read_time":146,"preview_page_count":4},7421720224475,"https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/davatar_276721f389ce27ea32af1340a28f341c","Examination of American  \nIndian/Alaska Native School  \nDiscipline Disproportionality Using the Vulnerable Decision Points Approach  \nBehavioral Disorders 2018, Vol. 44(1) 40–52  \n© Hammill Institute on Disabilities 2018 Article reuse guidelines: [sagepub.com/journals-permissions](sagepub.com/journals-permissions)[ ](sagepub.com/journals-permissions)[DOI: 10.1177/0198742918773438](DOI: 10.1177/0198742918773438)[ ](DOI: 10.1177/0198742918773438)[journals.sagepub.com/home/bhd](journals.sagepub.com/home/bhd)  \nCody Gion, MS 1, Kent McIntosh, PhD 1, and Keith Smolkowski, PhD2  \nAbstract  \nThe present study examined the extent to which racial disproportionality in office discipline referrals (ODRs) exists between American Indian/Alaska Native (AIAN) and White students in elementary (n = 140), middle (n = 67), and high (n = 48) schools. A multilevel logistic regression model was applied to examine overall levels of ODR disproportionality. For school levels with significant disproportionality, patterns of ODRs were analyzed to examine disproportionality of subjectively defined ODRs within the contexts of (a) student ethnicity,(b) time of day,(c) location,(d) severity of problem behavior, and (e) student gender. Results showed a sizable difference in subjective ODRs between AIAN and White students at the high school level.  \nKeywords  \ndisproportionate representation, behavioral, interventions, positive behavioral supports  \nAmerican Indian/Alaska Native (AIAN) students have historically been underrepresented in educational research andoverrepresented in poor educational outcomes. Scholars have suggested that these outcomes may be due, in part, to the incongruence between American Indian cultures and school systems largely influenced by European cultures (Pewewardy, 2002; Pewewardy & Hammer, 2003) . The United States has a dark history of using the education system to suppress American Indian culture. This history began in the 1600s with a Christian movement to use instruction to“civilize”AIAN youth and continued with the formal establishment of boarding schools in 1869 (Smith, 2004) . These educational settings were used to assimilate AIAN students into the dominant culture, with little regard for their cultural background (U.S. Senate, 1969) . Harsh means of discipline were often used to accomplish this goal (Meriam & Work, 1928) . A proposed policy from Harry Pancoast, a Philadelphia lawyer, in 1882 provides an adequate summary of the governmental view of American Indian culture at the time,“We must either butcher them or civilize them, and what we do we must do quickly”(Smith, 2004, p. 99) .  \nThe boarding school movement and the attempt to “civilize” American Indian culture may have contributed to the enduring negative outcomes for AIAN youth that we see today. When educational outcomes for AIAN students are compared with students from all other racial/ethnic groups, the contrast is striking. AIAN students are at a much higher  \nrisk for dropout, suicide, substance abuse, and involvement in juvenile justice systems than their nonnative counterparts (Faircloth & Tippeconnic, 2010; Rolnick & Arya, 2008) . In addition, AIAN students have the highest rates of special education identification (17% of AIAN student population) compared with other racial groups (15% of Black, 13% of White, 12% of Hispanic, 12% of two or more races, 11% of Pacific Islander, and 4% of Asian student populations; Kena et al., 2016) .  \nAIAN disproportionality is also reflected in their levels of academic achievement. In the United States, AIAN students score significantly lower on tests of academic achievement than White students. In 2015, 26% of AIAN students were proficient in reading, compared with 45% of White students, and 30% of AIAN students were proficient in math, compared with 47% of White students (National Center for Education Statistics, 2015). AIAN students were also less likely to obtain a high school diploma (AIAN = 84%, White = 97%), an asso","cbCaito08WyXhZ0N","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaito08WyXhZ0N","pdf",729519,13,"English","# Abstract\n## Study design and methods\n## Outcomes and results\n## Context for school discipline disproportionality\n## Racial history and educational policy background\n## Discipline practices and their effects","[{\"question\":\"What does the study examine regarding AIAN and White students?\",\"answer\":\"The study examines the extent of racial disproportionality in office discipline referrals (ODRs) between AIAN and White students across school levels.\"},{\"question\":\"How is the disproportionality measured?\",\"answer\":\"Overall levels of ODR disproportionality are assessed using a multilevel logistic regression model.\"},{\"question\":\"What factors are analyzed when disproportionality is significant?\",\"answer\":\"For school levels with significant disproportionality, ODR patterns are analyzed by student ethnicity, time of day, location, severity of problem behavior, and student gender.\"}]","Examination of American Indian/Alaska Native School Discipline Disproportionality Using the Vulnerable Decision Points Approach | PDF",1792079887,33]