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Methods: prospective interventional pilot study with normal-vision controls; 14 adults total, with 9 nil global stereoacuity in the intervention group and 5 serving as controls. Training used disparity-driven depth matching, individualized thresholds, virtual prism compensation, and interocular contrast balancing. Results: global stereoacuity improved in 4/9; local stereoacuity improved at near and far, BF increased, PFV distance break increased, and in-game depth error decreased. 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Intervention participants completed 8–10 VR sessions using disparity-driven depth matching, individualized thresholds, virtual prism compensation, and interocular contrast balancing.",{"name":118,"@type":109,"acceptedAnswer":119},"Which outcomes improved after training?",{"text":120,"@type":112},"Global stereoacuity improved in some intervention participants, local stereoacuity improved at near and far, binocular function (BF) increased, PFV distance break increased, and in-game depth discrimination error decreased.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":83,"og:type":123,"og:title":65,"og:site_name":95,"og:description":67},"article",{"robots":125,"canonical":83},"index,follow",{"doc_id":127,"site_id":62},461532,1790761809,{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":130},{"doc_id":127,"user_id":131,"nickname":92,"user_avatar":132,"doc_module":4,"category_id":39,"category_name":40,"doc_title":65,"doc_description":67,"doc_content":133,"file_id":134,"file_url":135,"file_type":136,"file_size":137,"view_count":4,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":8,"is_downloadable":8,"audit_status":8,"page_count":138,"language":139,"language_code":63,"site_id":62,"html_lang":63,"table_of_contents":140,"faqs":141,"seo_title":142,"seo_description":67,"update_tm":128,"read_time":143},962090760832,"https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/davatar_155a257f0dc6eb9ab79c44ca47cae57d","Article  \nEffects of Perceptual Learning Through Binocular Virtual Reality Exercises on Low Stereopsis  \nMaría Teresa Calderón-González 1,2, Irene Sánchez-Pavón 3,4, Juan A. Portela-Camino 5  \nand Santiago Martín-González 6, *  \nAcademic Editors: Mario Cantó Cerdán and Pilar Cacho-Martínez  \nReceived: 5 November 2025  \nRevised: 4 December 2025  \nAccepted: 16 December 2025  \nPublished: 19 December 2025  \nCopyright: © 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license.  \n1 Servicio de Oftalmología, Hospital Vital Álvarez Buylla, 33611 Mieres, Spain; mariateresa.calderon@sespa.es  \n2 Departamento de Óptica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain  \n3 Departamento de Física Teórica, Atómica y Óptica, Universidad de Valladolid, 47005 Valladolid, Spain; [irene.sanchez.pavon@uva.es](irene.sanchez.pavon@uva.es)  \n4 Instituto Universitario de Oftalmobiología Aplicada (IOBA), Universidad de Valladolid,  \n47005 Valladolid, Spain  \n5 Department of Optometry, Begira Ophthalmologic Clinic, 48001 Bilbao, Spain; [juanportel@hotmail.com](juanportel@hotmail.com)  \n6 Department of Construction and Manufacturing Engineering, University of Oviedo, 33204 Gijon, Spain  \n* Correspondence: martinsantiago@uniovi.es; Tel.: +34-610828291  \nAbstract  \nObjectives: To evaluate the feasibility and efficacy of a brief, scaffolded virtual reality (VR)-based perceptual-learning protocol to improve stereovision in adults without measurable baseline global stereopsis. Methods: Prospective interventional pilot study with a normal-vision reference group. Fourteen adults were enrolled; nine with nil global stereoacuity formed the intervention group and five with normal binocular vision served as controls. Intervention participants completed 8–10 VR sessions (~30 min each over two weeks) using a disparity-driven depth-matching task with individualized thresholds, virtual prism compensation, and interocular contrast balancing. Primary outcomes were changes in clinical stereoacuity (local and global) and Binocular Function (BF) . Secondary outcomes included positive fusional vergence (PFV), binocular imbalance (inter-ocular contrast ratio), and in-game depth discrimination error (arcseconds) . Results: Global stereoacuity improved with four of nine participants who initially showed no measurable global stereopsis achieving measurable thresholds after training (post: 861.11 ± 537.08 arcsec, IQR = 800.00; p = 0.06) . Local stereoacuity improved near (pre: 616.67 ± 532.68 arcsec, IQR = 1100.00; post: 361.67 ± 537.11, IQR = 200.00; p = 0.03) and ata distance (pre: 715.11 ± 573.54 arcsec, IQR = 1114.00; post: 437.11 ± 510.41, IQR = 405.00; p = 0.03) . BF score improved from 4.33 ± 0.50 (IQR = 1.00) to 3.51 ± 1.14 (IQR = 1.30)(p = 0.03) . PFV break at distance increased (pre: 17.83 ± 17.53∆, IQR = 23.50; post: 24.50 ± 17.12∆, IQR = 28.50; p = 0.04), and the binocular imbalance showed a nonsignificant trend towards improvement (p = 0.09) . In-game depth error decreased from 752.11 ± 384.50 arcsec (IQR = 553.00) to 221.78 ± 79.12 (IQR = 105.00) (p \u003C 0.01) . Control participants achieved a mean depth error of 43.00 ± 10.30 arcsec after three sessions. Conclusions: A shortdose, individualized VR protocol yielded gains in stereoacuity and binocular function in adults with severe stereodeficiency, with transfer from in-game learning to standard clinical measures. While the sample size was limited, the approach proved feasible and was well tolerated, showing encouraging efficiency versus prior high-dose regimens.  \nKeywords: amblyopia; strabismus; stereoacuity; perceptual learning; virtual reality  \n1. Introduction  \nDepth perception, the ability to experience the world in three dimensions, arises from various visual cues. While some are monocular (e.g., perspective, occlusion), others require input from both eyes (e.g","cbCaigOH6vZA1ooE","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaigOH6vZA1ooE","pdf",1242891,17,"English","# Abstract\n## Objectives and Methods\n## Results\n## Conclusions\n# Introduction\n## Depth perception and stereopsis\n## Stereoacuity assessment\n## Strabismus and amblyopia as causes","[{\"question\":\"What was the main goal of the VR perceptual-learning protocol?\",\"answer\":\"To evaluate whether a brief, scaffolded VR-based perceptual-learning protocol could improve stereovision in adults who had no measurable baseline global stereopsis.\"},{\"question\":\"How were participants grouped and what did the training involve?\",\"answer\":\"Fourteen adults were enrolled: 9 with nil global stereoacuity received the VR intervention and 5 with normal binocular vision were controls. Intervention participants completed 8–10 VR sessions using disparity-driven depth matching, individualized thresholds, virtual prism compensation, and interocular contrast balancing.\"},{\"question\":\"Which outcomes improved after training?\",\"answer\":\"Global stereoacuity improved in some intervention participants, local stereoacuity improved at near and far, binocular function (BF) increased, PFV distance break increased, and in-game depth discrimination error decreased.\"}]","Effects of Perceptual Learning Through Binocular Virtual Reality Exercises on Low Stereopsis | PDF",43]