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This study tested whether galacto-oligosaccharide (GOS) supplementation during the first 28 days affects immunoglobulin responses, hindgut microbiota, and metabolic regulation after withdrawal in Holstein dairy calves. Twenty-four newborn females received control or GOS, then were evaluated through treatment and six weeks post-supplementation. GOS increased serum IgA and IgG during feeding, with IgG remaining elevated after cessation. Microbial diversity changed modestly, while selected taxa and metabolic functions associated with amino acid and cofactor metabolism shifted, with distinct metabolomic patterns observed by day 70. Results indicate sustained immune and metabolic alterations potentially mediated by gut microbial functional modulation.",{"@graph":69,"@context":127},[70,84,106],{"@type":71,"itemListElement":72},"BreadcrumbList",[73,77,79,82],{"item":74,"name":75,"@type":76,"position":8},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":78,"name":9,"@type":76,"position":14},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/",{"item":80,"name":35,"@type":76,"position":81},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/healthcare/",3,{"item":83,"name":65,"@type":76,"position":19},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/early-life-galacto-oligosaccharide-supplementation-induces-persistent-immunoglobulin-and-metabolic-alterations-in-holstein-dairy-calves-by-shaping-gut-microbiota/469166/",{"url":83,"name":65,"@type":85,"image":86,"author":91,"headline":65,"publisher":94,"fileFormat":97,"inLanguage":63,"description":67,"dateModified":98,"datePublished":99,"encodingFormat":97,"isAccessibleForFree":100,"interactionStatistic":101},"DigitalDocument",{"url":87,"@type":88,"width":89,"height":90},"https://docshare.wps.com/thumbnails/early-life-galacto-oligosaccharide-supplementation-induces-persistent-immunoglobulin-and-metabolic-alterations-in-holstein-dairy-calves-by-shaping-gut-microbiota/469166.png","ImageObject",300,407,{"name":92,"@type":93},"Mimi","Person",{"url":74,"name":95,"@type":96},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-11-03","2026-09-30",true,{"@type":102,"interactionType":103,"userInteractionCount":105},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":104},"ViewAction",13,{"@type":107,"mainEntity":108},"FAQPage",[109,115,119,123],{"name":110,"@type":111,"acceptedAnswer":112},"What was the main objective of the study?","Question",{"text":113,"@type":114},"To determine whether supplementing galacto-oligosaccharides early in life influences immunoglobulin levels, gut microbiota, and metabolic profiles after supplementation stops.","Answer",{"name":116,"@type":111,"acceptedAnswer":117},"How were the calves grouped and for how long were they supplemented?",{"text":118,"@type":114},"Twenty-four newborn Holstein female calves were assigned to a control group or a GOS group receiving 10 g/day from birth to day 28; afterward, former GOS calves were tracked as the GOSS group.",{"name":120,"@type":111,"acceptedAnswer":121},"What immune effects did GOS show after supplementation ended?",{"text":122,"@type":114},"GOS supplementation increased serum IgA and IgG during the treatment, and IgG remained elevated for six weeks after supplementation was discontinued.",{"name":124,"@type":111,"acceptedAnswer":125},"Did GOS substantially change overall gut microbial diversity?",{"text":126,"@type":114},"Overall microbial diversity was not markedly altered, but GOS selectively enriched beneficial bacterial taxa and metabolic pathways linked to amino acid synthesis, lipid-related processes, and cofactor production.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":83,"og:type":129,"og:title":65,"og:site_name":95,"og:description":67},"article",{"robots":131,"canonical":83},"index,follow",{"doc_id":133,"site_id":62},469166,1790825151,{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":136},{"doc_id":133,"user_id":137,"nickname":92,"user_avatar":138,"doc_module":4,"category_id":34,"category_name":35,"doc_title":65,"doc_description":67,"doc_content":139,"file_id":140,"file_url":141,"file_type":142,"file_size":143,"view_count":105,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":8,"is_downloadable":8,"audit_status":8,"page_count":144,"language":145,"language_code":63,"site_id":62,"html_lang":63,"table_of_contents":146,"faqs":147,"seo_title":148,"seo_description":67,"update_tm":149,"read_time":150,"preview_page_count":4},2336477974920,"https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/davatar_155a257f0dc6eb9ab79c44ca47cae57d","Article  \nEarly-Life Galacto-Oligosaccharide Supplementation Induces Persistent Immunoglobulin and Metabolic Alterations in Holstein Dairy Calves by Shaping Gut Microbiota  \nQi Huang, Meinan Chang and Peng Sun *  \nAcademic Editor: Manuel Fondevila  \nReceived: 19 November 2025  \nRevised: 28 December 2025  \nAccepted: 29 December 2025  \nPublished: 1 January 2026  \nCopyright: © 2026 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license.  \nState Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feeding, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of  \nAgricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China; [workhq@163.com](workhq@163.com) (Q.H.); [meinan0616@126.com](meinan0616@126.com) (M.C.)  \n* Correspondence: [sunpeng02@caas.cn](sunpeng02@caas.cn)  \nSimple Summary  \nDairy calves rely on a well-developed immune system and healthy gut to grow strong and stay productive later in life. We investigated whether supplementing galactooligosaccharides in the early diet of calves influences immunoglobulin levels, gut microbiota, and metabolism after supplementation stops. Calves that received this ingredient showed higher levels of immunoglobulin in their blood, and these benefits continued even after the supplement was no longer given. Although overall microbial diversity was not greatly altered, galacto-oligosaccharides promoted the enrichment of beneficial bacterial taxa and metabolic pathways linked to amino acid synthesis, lipid metabolism, and cofactor production. By day 70, calves supplemented with galacto-oligosaccharides early in life displayed distinct fecal and serum metabolite profiles, particularly in pathways related to vitamin B6, folate and cobalamin metabolism, branched-chain amino acid biosynthesis, and purine and arginine metabolism. These findings demonstrate that early galactooligosaccharides supplementation can influence host immunity, gut microbial functions, and metabolic profiles. Such early nutritional strategies may help improve calf growth performance, reduce disease susceptibility, and support more sustainable dairy production.  \nAbstract  \nEarly-life development of immune functions is crucial for calf health, growth, and future productivity. Galacto-oligosaccharides (GOSs) have been reported to facilitate ruminal microbial establishment and improve growth in Holstein dairy calves, but their prolonged influence on immunoglobulin levels, hindgut microbiota, and metabolic regulation remains insufficiently understood. This study evaluated the effects of early-life GOS supplementation on immune-related indicators, intestinal microbial ecology, and metabolic profilesin Holstein calves. Twenty-four newborn Holstein female dairy calves were randomly assigned to a control group (CON, n = 12) or a GOS group (GOS, n = 12; 10 g/day from birth to day 28) . After supplementation ceased on day 28, calves previously receiving GOS were referred to as the GOSS group (n = 6) . Immunoglobulin levels, gut microbiota, and fecal and serum metabolomes were evaluated during supplementation and six weeks after withdrawal. GOS supplementation significantly increased serum IgA and IgG levels during the treatment, with IgG levels remaining elevated for six weeks after discontinued supplementation. Although overall microbial diversity was not markedly altered, GOS selectively enriched bacterial taxa and function pathways linked to amino acid synthesis, unsaturated fatty acid production, and coenzyme-related metabolism. On day 70, GOSS group displayed distinct fecal and serum metabolomic profiles, with altered metabolites primarily associated with vitamin B6, folate, cobalamin metabolism, branched-chain amino  \nacid biosynthesis, and purine and arginine pathways. These results demonstrate that earlylife GOS supplementation promotes sustained immune and metabolic alterations following supplementation cessation, potentially mediate","cbCaic2znVZXnMOa","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaic2znVZXnMOa","pdf",6042803,18,"English","# Simple Summary\n# Abstract\n# 1. Introduction","[{\"question\":\"What was the main objective of the study?\",\"answer\":\"To determine whether supplementing galacto-oligosaccharides early in life influences immunoglobulin levels, gut microbiota, and metabolic profiles after supplementation stops.\"},{\"question\":\"How were the calves grouped and for how long were they supplemented?\",\"answer\":\"Twenty-four newborn Holstein female calves were assigned to a control group or a GOS group receiving 10 g/day from birth to day 28; afterward, former GOS calves were tracked as the GOSS group.\"},{\"question\":\"What immune effects did GOS show after supplementation ended?\",\"answer\":\"GOS supplementation increased serum IgA and IgG during the treatment, and IgG remained elevated for six weeks after supplementation was discontinued.\"},{\"question\":\"Did GOS substantially change overall gut microbial diversity?\",\"answer\":\"Overall microbial diversity was not markedly altered, but GOS selectively enriched beneficial bacterial taxa and metabolic pathways linked to amino acid synthesis, lipid-related processes, and cofactor production.\"}]","Early-Life Galacto-Oligosaccharide Supplementation Induces Persistent Immunoglobulin and Metabolic Alterations in Holstein Dairy Calves by Shaping Gut Microbiota | PDF",1790775190,45]