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Data were collected from 704 students in Istanbul across grades 6–8. Item analysis and exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were conducted, alongside reliability analysis. Exploratory analysis produced three factors—spatial visualization, spatial orientation, and spatial relations—while confirmatory analysis supported a well-fitting model. The full-scale Cronbach’s alpha was 0.802, indicating good reliability for the 23-item test.",{"@graph":69,"@context":122},[70,84,105],{"@type":71,"itemListElement":72},"BreadcrumbList",[73,77,79,82],{"item":74,"name":75,"@type":76,"position":8},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":78,"name":9,"@type":76,"position":14},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/",{"item":80,"name":40,"@type":76,"position":81},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/research-report/",3,{"item":83,"name":65,"@type":76,"position":19},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/development-of-the-spatial-ability-test-for-middle-school-students/588108/",{"url":83,"name":65,"@type":85,"image":86,"author":91,"headline":65,"publisher":94,"fileFormat":97,"inLanguage":63,"description":67,"dateModified":98,"datePublished":99,"encodingFormat":97,"isAccessibleForFree":100,"interactionStatistic":101},"DigitalDocument",{"url":87,"@type":88,"width":89,"height":90},"https://docshare.wps.com/thumbnails/development-of-the-spatial-ability-test-for-middle-school-students/588108.png","ImageObject",300,407,{"name":92,"@type":93},"Aditya","Person",{"url":74,"name":95,"@type":96},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-11-11","2026-10-15",true,{"@type":102,"interactionType":103,"userInteractionCount":29},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":104},"ViewAction",{"@type":106,"mainEntity":107},"FAQPage",[108,114,118],{"name":109,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":111},"What is the purpose of the study?","Question",{"text":112,"@type":113},"To develop a spatial ability test for middle school students and determine whether it is valid and reliable.","Answer",{"name":115,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":116},"How many students participated, and what grades were included?",{"text":117,"@type":113},"704 middle school students from Istanbul participated, including students in grades 6, 7, and 8.",{"name":119,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":120},"What factor structure did the exploratory factor analysis identify?",{"text":121,"@type":113},"It identified three factors: spatial visualization, spatial orientation, and spatial relations.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":83,"og:type":124,"og:title":65,"og:site_name":95,"og:description":67},"article",{"robots":126,"canonical":83},"index,follow",{"doc_id":128,"site_id":62},588108,1792166893,{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":131},{"doc_id":128,"user_id":132,"nickname":92,"user_avatar":133,"doc_module":4,"category_id":39,"category_name":40,"doc_title":65,"doc_description":67,"doc_content":134,"file_id":135,"file_url":136,"file_type":137,"file_size":138,"view_count":29,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":8,"is_downloadable":8,"audit_status":8,"page_count":139,"language":140,"language_code":63,"site_id":62,"html_lang":63,"table_of_contents":141,"faqs":142,"seo_title":143,"seo_description":67,"update_tm":144,"read_time":145,"preview_page_count":4},962085564549,"https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/davatar_085a072bc5b1113ac321206ff7593b45","DEVELOPMENT OF THE SPATIAL ABILITY TEST  \nFOR MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS1  \nSevda Göktepe Yıldız, Ahmet Şükrü Özdemir  \nAbstract: The purpose of this study was to develop a test to determine spatial ability of middle school students. The participants were 704 middle school students (6th, 7th and 8th grade) who were studying at different schools from Istanbul. Item analysis, exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, reliability analysis were used to analyse the data. Exploratory factor analysis revealed three factors: spatial visualization, spatial orientation, and spatial relations in accordance with the determined theoretical framework. Confirmatory factor analysis confirmed that these three factors constituted a model-with good fit. The Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient for the whole of the scale was found to be .802. The findings obtained showed us that the test which was composed of twenty three items was a valid and reliable measuring instrument.  \nKey words: spatial ability, test development, item analysis, middle school students  \n1. Introduction  \nInnovations of our time, rapid scientific research brings new developments in the field of education. They put abstract thinking skills at the forefront. From this perspective, spatial ability has an extra important place in education (Sezen Yüksel & Bülbül, 2014) . As spatial ability can be seen especially in STEM areas, instruments that are testing spatial ability start to attract attention in the literature (Turgut, 2015) . Besides, spatial ability is also important in everyday life activities as well as in mathematics and geometry courses. Spatial thinking and academic performance is positively correlated with each other (Turgut & Yılmaz, 2012) . Spatial ability is important not only STEM disciplines, but also in several other fields (Turgut, 2015) .  \nSeveral concepts like spatial thinking, spatial perception, and spatial reasoning are used instead of spatial ability (NCTM, 2000; Olkun, 2003) . It can be said that these differences come from discussing spatial ability from different perspectives. There is a great diversity about the definition of the spatial ability. The reasons of this confusion can be as follows: Different definitions of spatial ability, and presenting components in different numbers and names provided by different researchers (D’Oliveira, 2004) . Spatial ability is a combination of some skills, such as imagining the objects from different perspectives, moving objects in the mind, mental rotation, visualizing 2D and 3D geometric figures (Olkun, 2003; Turgut, 2007; Hegarty & Waller, 2004) . In this study, spatial ability was examined by dividing them into three components which were accepted by Lohman (1988): spatial relations, spatial orientation and spatial visualization.  \nLohman (1979) used three basic factors for spatial ability. First one is spatial relations component and it is tested by using tests requiring rapid performance in rotating two-dimensional objects in mind (i.e. card rotation tests) . Later, Lohman (1988) named this component as speeded rotation. In another definition, the concept of spatial relations is defined as the ability about rotating two or threedimensional objects as a whole in mind and recognizing images with their rotated forms (Olkun & Altun, 2003) .  \n1 This study is a part of doctoral dissertation of first author.  \nSpatial orientation is the ability about imagining how a figure is perceived from another position (Lohman, 1988) in other words there is a perspective change. In the studies carried out recently there are abilities like cognitive maps, map reading, environmental geometry, the position of an object and sense of direction in spatial orientation ability (Wolbers & Hegarty, 2010; Sarama & Clements, 2009) .  \nAccording to Lohman (1988) spatial visualization component includes more challenging tasks. It requires an order of visual representation against more complex stimulant. Paper folding tests and ment","cbCaih56X5shbeFJ","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaih56X5shbeFJ","pdf",503682,14,"English","# Introduction\n## Spatial ability in education and STEM\n## Core components and related concepts\n## Prior instruments and test examples","[{\"question\":\"What is the purpose of the study?\",\"answer\":\"To develop a spatial ability test for middle school students and determine whether it is valid and reliable.\"},{\"question\":\"How many students participated, and what grades were included?\",\"answer\":\"704 middle school students from Istanbul participated, including students in grades 6, 7, and 8.\"},{\"question\":\"What factor structure did the exploratory factor analysis identify?\",\"answer\":\"It identified three factors: spatial visualization, spatial orientation, and spatial relations.\"}]","DEVELOPMENT OF THE SPATIAL ABILITY TEST FOR MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS | PDF",1792064546,35]