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The study reviews the history of transferring Western skill-formation schemes through donor-supported practices and identifies policy blind spots when universal “best practices” ignore distinct cultural, sociological, and economic conditions. Comparative cases from China and the Republic of Korea show two alternative pathways for functional TVET development.",{"@graph":69,"@context":122},[70,84,105],{"@type":71,"itemListElement":72},"BreadcrumbList",[73,77,79,82],{"item":74,"name":75,"@type":76,"position":8},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":78,"name":9,"@type":76,"position":14},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/",{"item":80,"name":40,"@type":76,"position":81},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/research-report/",3,{"item":83,"name":65,"@type":76,"position":19},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/crossing-the-rivers-by-touching-the-stones-alternative-approaches-in-technical-and-vocational-education-and-training-alternative-approaches-in-technical-and-vocational-education-and-training/601464/",{"url":83,"name":65,"@type":85,"image":86,"author":91,"headline":65,"publisher":94,"fileFormat":97,"inLanguage":63,"description":67,"dateModified":98,"datePublished":99,"encodingFormat":97,"isAccessibleForFree":100,"interactionStatistic":101},"DigitalDocument",{"url":87,"@type":88,"width":89,"height":90},"https://docshare.wps.com/thumbnails/crossing-the-rivers-by-touching-the-stones-alternative-approaches-in-technical-and-vocational-education-and-training-alternative-approaches-in-technical-and-vocational-education-and-training/601464.png","ImageObject",300,407,{"name":92,"@type":93},"hdkawk","Person",{"url":74,"name":95,"@type":96},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-10-20","2026-10-15",true,{"@type":102,"interactionType":103,"userInteractionCount":81},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":104},"ViewAction",{"@type":106,"mainEntity":107},"FAQPage",[108,114,118],{"name":109,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":111},"Why do Western vocational education models fail when transplanted to other countries?","Question",{"text":112,"@type":113},"The document argues that transplant attempts can fail because they do not fit local economic, political, cultural, and historical contexts, causing policy needs to diverge from those implied by “best practices.”","Answer",{"name":115,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":116},"What can developing countries learn from Eastern Asian experiences for TVET development?",{"text":117,"@type":113},"The study suggests designing TVET systems based on each country’s unique cultural, sociological, and economic contexts, using experiences from China and the Republic of Korea as alternative pathways.",{"name":119,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":120},"What historical trend shaped TVET policy over the decades discussed?",{"text":121,"@type":113},"TVET policy shifted over time: it was initially promoted for development, later de-emphasized when returns were seen as insufficient and universal primary education dominated, and then revived after unemployment concerns increased TVET investment.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":83,"og:type":124,"og:title":65,"og:site_name":95,"og:description":67},"article",{"robots":126,"canonical":83},"index,follow",{"doc_id":128,"site_id":62},601464,1792377084,{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":131},{"doc_id":128,"user_id":132,"nickname":92,"user_avatar":133,"doc_module":4,"category_id":39,"category_name":40,"doc_title":65,"doc_description":67,"doc_content":134,"file_id":135,"file_url":136,"file_type":137,"file_size":138,"view_count":81,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":8,"is_downloadable":8,"audit_status":8,"page_count":139,"language":140,"language_code":63,"site_id":62,"html_lang":63,"table_of_contents":141,"faqs":142,"seo_title":143,"seo_description":67,"update_tm":144,"read_time":145},3985747859855,"https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/davatar_276721f389ce27ea32af1340a28f341c","Crossing the Rivers by Touching the Stones: Alternative Approaches in Technical and Vocational Education and Training From the People’s Republic of China and the Republic of Korea  \nWei Ha (哈巍) Peking University Po Yang (杨钋) Peking University  \nYoungsup Choi (최영섭) Korea University of Technology and Education Sungsup Ra (나성섭)  \nAsian Development Bank  \nRyotaro Hayashi (はやし りょうたろう) Asian Development Bank  \nConor McCutcheon New York University  \nECNU Review of Education 2023, Vol. 6(4) 654–676 © The Author(s) 2023 Article reuse guidelines:  \n[sagepub.com/journals-permissions](sagepub.com/journals-permissions)[ ](sagepub.com/journals-permissions)[DOI: 10.1177/20965311231182157](DOI: 10.1177/20965311231182157)[ ](DOI: 10.1177/20965311231182157)[journals.sagepub.com/home/roe](journals.sagepub.com/home/roe)  \nAbstract  \nPurpose: This study aims to answer the following questions: (1) Why have attempts to transplant Western vocational education models failed? (2) Is there anything we can learn from the experiences of Eastern Asian countries when developing their own vocational education models?  \nCorresponding author:  \nWei Ha, Institute of Economics of Education, Peking University, Beijing, China. [Email: wha@pku.edu.cn](Email: wha@pku.edu.cn)  \nCreative Commons Non Commercial CC BY-NC: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative  \nCommons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 License ([https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/)) which permits non-commercial use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access page ([https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage](https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage)).  \nDesign/Approach/Methods: This study reviews the history of transplanting Western skill formation schemes into developing countries, an often-failed die-hard practice supported by both bilateral and multilateral donors.  \nFindings: Our findings suggest that developing countries should design their technical and vocational education and training systems based on their unique cultural, sociological, and economic contexts. It offers two alternative pathways based on the experiences of the People’s Republic of China and the Republic of Korea.  \nOriginality/Value: These East Asian examples could broaden the perspectives of policymakers in developing countries aspiring to develop functional skill formation schemes.  \nKeywords  \nComparative education, East Asia, international development, skill formation, technical and vocational education and training  \nDate received: 22 January 2023; revised: 25 March 2023; accepted: 28 March 2023  \nTechnical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) represents an important area of development, especially in developing countries that desire to take advantage of employment opportunities in low-to medium-skilled areas. TVET remains somewhat understudied and less well-understood than general education. As discussed in this essay, TVET development strategies are generally based on the experiences of several developed Western nations. Their “success stories” have been encapsulated into a set of “best practices” advocated by international organizations, multilateral development banks, and other aid-focused organizations. The attempt to collate a set ofpractices that are considered universally the best, albeit well-intentioned, have potentially overlooked the perspectives and experiences of developing countries where different circumstances related to economics, politics, culture, and history can render their policy needs substantially different from those addressed by the “best practices.”  \nThis article conducts insightful analyses ofTVET approaches on a global scale and the history of their development, and offers case studies of two countries: the Republic of Korea (ROK) and the People’s Republic of China (PRC) . Both count","cbCaisIuThD8z0jU","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaisIuThD8z0jU","pdf",926444,23,"English","# Abstract\n## Purpose\n## Design/Approach/Methods\n## Findings\n## Originality/Value\n# The search for global TVET solutions: History, development, and failings\n## The evolution of unified TVET policy and the significance of Western models","[{\"question\":\"Why do Western vocational education models fail when transplanted to other countries?\",\"answer\":\"The document argues that transplant attempts can fail because they do not fit local economic, political, cultural, and historical contexts, causing policy needs to diverge from those implied by “best practices.”\"},{\"question\":\"What can developing countries learn from Eastern Asian experiences for TVET development?\",\"answer\":\"The study suggests designing TVET systems based on each country’s unique cultural, sociological, and economic contexts, using experiences from China and the Republic of Korea as alternative pathways.\"},{\"question\":\"What historical trend shaped TVET policy over the decades discussed?\",\"answer\":\"TVET policy shifted over time: it was initially promoted for development, later de-emphasized when returns were seen as insufficient and universal primary education dominated, and then revived after unemployment concerns increased TVET investment.\"}]","Crossing the Rivers by Touching the Stones - Alternative Approaches in Technical and Vocational Education and Training - Alternative Approaches in Technical and Vocational Education and Training | PDF",1792092662,58]