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Using survey and administrative data from 938 undergraduates, results show inequities: underrepresented minority, first-generation, and international students report lower awareness and academic use. 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\nArticle reuse guidelines: [sagepub.com/journals-permissions](sagepub.com/journals-permissions)[ ](sagepub.com/journals-permissions)© The Author(s) 2025. [https://journals.sagepub.com/home/ero](https://journals.sagepub.com/home/ero)  \nChatGPT Early Adoption in Higher Education: Variation in Student Usage, Instructional Support, and Educational Equity  \nRichard Arum  \nMaria Calderon Leon  \nXunFei Li  \nJomar Lopes  \nUniversity of California  \nThis study examines the early adoption of ChatGPT in late 2022 and early 2023 by identifying variation in student awareness, academic use, and perceived instructional support for the technology at a diverse U.S. public research university. Specifically, we investigate (a) how individual awareness and academic use of ChatGPT vary by student characteristics and field of study, (b) how instructor encouragement or discouragement varies across courses and student demographics, and (c) how academic use patterns differ between science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) and non-STEM fields. Data from 938 undergraduates, merged with administrative records, revealed disparities in ChatGPT awareness and use, with underrepresented minority, first-generation, and international students less likely to know about or use the tool academically. Course-level analysis highlighted that instructor encouragement is more prevalent in STEMfields and upperdivision courses but decreases in classes with higher underrepresented minority representation. Open-ended responses showed distinct patterns of ChatGPT use, with STEM students favoring conceptual assistance and coding and non-STEM students engaging in writing and instructor-assigned activities. These findings underscore early inequities in access and use of emerging educational technologies and call for institutional strategies to promote equitable awareness and skill development aligned with academic and professional goals.  \nKeywords: artificial intelligence, computers and learning, equity, higher education, instructional technologies, descriptive analysis, survey research  \nIntroduction  \nThe introduction and rapid dissemination of ChatGPT in late winter 2022 was experienced by much of global society, including the higher-education sector, as potentially transformative or existential in character. Using large language models to generate individualized outputs or responses to user-specified prompts (OpenAI, 2023, as cited in Strzelecki, 2023), ChatGPT has been recognized for its potential applications as an adaptive student-centered learning tool (Rasul et al., 2023) . Scholars have highlighted ChatGPT’s potential utility in providing students with research and writing support (Dempere et al., 2023), personalized and immediate feedback on course assignments (Sok & Heng, 2024), and resources to overcome language barriers (Fütterer et al., 2023). In addition, researchers have documented university faculty adoption of ChatGPT for administrative tasks and have reported improvements in  \nfaculty productivity, energy, and workplace happiness (Cambra-Fierro et al., 2025; Tiwari et al., 2024). These developments increasingly position ChatGPT as a valuable tool for improving both student and faculty work quality and productivity (Fauzi et al., 2023; Firat, 2023) .  \nHowever, a growing body of research also has highlighted concerns about students’ ChatGPT adoption or use. Scholars have noted the potential of this tool to encourage technological overreliance and discourage critical thinking among students (Chan & Hu, 2023; Farrokhnia et al., 2024) . Additional concerns stem from evidence documenting ChatGPT’s tendency to produce socially biased responses (Zheng, 2024) and inaccurate citation outputs (Day, 2023) while simultaneously facilitating plagiarism that is harder to detect (Su et al., 2023) . Therefore, although ChatGPT holds significant promise for improving ","cbCain5T5FPRp4j5","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCain5T5FPRp4j5","pdf",735564,12,"English","# Introduction\n## Research questions and study focus\n## Concerns and motivations for examining adoption","[{\"question\":\"When and where was early ChatGPT adoption studied?\",\"answer\":\"The study examines adoption in late 2022 and early 2023 at a diverse U.S. public research university.\"},{\"question\":\"What data sources were used to assess student awareness and academic use?\",\"answer\":\"Data from 938 undergraduates were merged with administrative records to analyze awareness, academic use, and instructional support patterns.\"},{\"question\":\"How did instructor encouragement differ across courses and student groups?\",\"answer\":\"Instructor encouragement was more prevalent in STEM fields and upper-division courses, but it decreased in classes with higher underrepresented minority representation.\"}]","ChatGPT Early Adoption in Higher Education - Variation in Student Usage, Instructional Support, and Educational Equity | PDF",1792069394]