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Despite available prevention strategies, diagnosis in early stages and effective treatment are limited in part by patient rejection or disinterest in cervical sampling. This review evaluates emerging diagnostic approaches that detect CC biomarkers in non-cervical specimens—including blood, serum, plasma, urine, and vaginal fluids—to improve patient comfort while maintaining high sensitivity and specificity, and to support diagnosis, prognosis, and monitoring. It also analyzes challenges and future clinical translation.",{"@graph":69,"@context":122},[70,84,105],{"@type":71,"itemListElement":72},"BreadcrumbList",[73,77,79,82],{"item":74,"name":75,"@type":76,"position":8},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":78,"name":9,"@type":76,"position":14},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/",{"item":80,"name":35,"@type":76,"position":81},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/healthcare/",3,{"item":83,"name":65,"@type":76,"position":19},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/cervical-cancer-biomarkers-in-non-cervical-samples-emerging-tools-for-diagnosis-and-prognosis/376225/",{"url":83,"name":65,"@type":85,"image":86,"author":91,"headline":65,"publisher":94,"fileFormat":97,"inLanguage":63,"description":67,"dateModified":98,"datePublished":99,"encodingFormat":97,"isAccessibleForFree":100,"interactionStatistic":101},"DigitalDocument",{"url":87,"@type":88,"width":89,"height":90},"https://docshare.wps.com/thumbnails/cervical-cancer-biomarkers-in-non-cervical-samples-emerging-tools-for-diagnosis-and-prognosis/376225.png","ImageObject",300,407,{"name":92,"@type":93},"Grenda","Person",{"url":74,"name":95,"@type":96},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-10-31","2026-09-24",true,{"@type":102,"interactionType":103,"userInteractionCount":39},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":104},"ViewAction",{"@type":106,"mainEntity":107},"FAQPage",[108,114,118],{"name":109,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":111},"Why does cervical cancer incidence and mortality remain high despite prevention efforts?","Question",{"text":112,"@type":113},"High-risk HPV infection is the primary driver, and outcomes remain poor due to gaps in early detection and patient reluctance toward cervical sampling, even when prevention strategies exist.","Answer",{"name":115,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":116},"What are the main HPV types responsible for most cervical cancer cases?",{"text":117,"@type":113},"HPV16 and HPV18 are the etiological agents in approximately 70% of cervical cancer cases, with low-risk and high-risk HPV groups classified by oncogenic potential.",{"name":119,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":120},"How do non-cervical samples support cervical cancer biomarker testing?",{"text":121,"@type":113},"Detection of biomarkers in blood, serum, plasma, urine, and vaginal fluids may reduce discomfort from cervical sampling, enabling sensitive and specific testing for diagnosis, prognosis, and patient monitoring.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":83,"og:type":124,"og:title":65,"og:site_name":95,"og:description":67},"article",{"robots":126,"canonical":83},"index,follow",{"doc_id":128,"site_id":62},376225,1791093503,{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":131},{"doc_id":128,"user_id":132,"nickname":92,"user_avatar":133,"doc_module":4,"category_id":34,"category_name":35,"doc_title":65,"doc_description":67,"doc_content":134,"file_id":135,"file_url":136,"file_type":137,"file_size":138,"view_count":39,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":8,"is_downloadable":8,"audit_status":8,"page_count":139,"language":140,"language_code":63,"site_id":62,"html_lang":63,"table_of_contents":141,"faqs":142,"seo_title":143,"seo_description":67,"update_tm":144,"read_time":145},7971474921005,"https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/davatar_29158cc5080c5b710cf443261637dec0","Review  \nCervical Cancer Biomarkers in Non-Cervical Samples: Emerging Tools for Diagnosis and Prognosis  \nMélida del Rosario Lizarazo-Taborda 1, Marisol Godínez-Rubí 2, Daniel Núnez-Avellaneda 3, Adrián Ramírez-de-Arellano 1, Ana Laura Pereira-Suárez 1,* and Julio César Villegas-Pineda 1, *  \nAcademic Editor: David B. Alexander  \nReceived: 7 June 2025  \nRevised: 2 July 2025  \nAccepted: 2 July 2025  \nPublished: 6 July 2025  \nCitation: Lizarazo-Taborda, M.d.R.; Godínez-Rubí, M.; Núnez-Avellaneda, D.; Ramírez-de-Arellano, A.; Pereira-Suárez, A.L.; Villegas-Pineda, J.C. Cervical Cancer Biomarkers in Non-Cervical Samples: Emerging Tools for Diagnosis and Prognosis. Int.  \nJ. Mol. Sci. 2025, 26, 6502. [https://](https://)[ ](https://)[doi.org/10.3390/ijms26136502](doi.org/10.3390/ijms26136502)  \n[Copyright:](Copyright:) © 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ([https://creativecommons.org/](https://creativecommons.org/)[ ](https://creativecommons.org/)[licenses/by/4.0/](licenses/by/4.0/)) .  \n1 Instituto de Investigación en Cáncer e Infecciones, Departamento de Microbiología y Patología, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara 44340, Mexico; [melida.lizarazo1075@alumnos.udg.mx](melida.lizarazo1075@alumnos.udg.mx) (M.d.R.L.-T.); [adrian.ramirez@academicos.udg.mx](adrian.ramirez@academicos.udg.mx) (A.R.-d.-A.)  \n2 Laboratorio de Patología Diagnóstica e Inmunohistoquímica, Centro de Investigación y Diagnóstico en Patología, Departamento de Microbiología y Patología, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara 44340, Mexico; [juliana.godinez@academicos.udg.mx](juliana.godinez@academicos.udg.mx)  \n3 Dirección Adjunta de Desarrollo Tecnológico, Vinculación e Innovación, Secretaría de Ciencia, Humanidades, Tecnología e Innovación, Ciudad de México 03940, Mexico; [daniel.nunez@secihti.mx](daniel.nunez@secihti.mx)  \n* Correspondence: [ana.pereira@academicos.udg.mx](ana.pereira@academicos.udg.mx) (A.L.P.-S.); [julio.villegas@academicos.udg.mx](julio.villegas@academicos.udg.mx) (J.C.V.-P.)  \nAbstract  \nCervical cancer (CC) is the gynecological cancer with the highest incidence and mortality worldwide. High-risk oncogenic human papillomaviruses (HPV) genotypes 16 and 18 are the primary risk factors for developing this female neoplasm, with them being theetiological agents of 70% of cervical cancers. Despite the availability of various prevention strategies, laboratory tests capable of detecting the disease in its previous and early stages, and multiple treatment schemes, CC incidence and mortality rates remain high, due in part to the population’s rejection or disinterest in the current type of sampling. An alternative that could encourage women to take better care of their gynecological health is the availability of tests that detect biomarkers in non-cervical samples with high sensitivity and specificity. The detection of biomarkers in non-cervical samples (blood, serum, plasma, urine, and vaginal fluids) may help reduce the discomfort associated with cervical sampling in patients, therefore promoting gynecological healthcare. This review discusses current diagnostic methods and recent advances in CC biomarkers detected in non-cervical samples, emphasizing their potential for diagnosis, prognosis, and patient monitoring. We further discuss the challenges and future perspectives of applying these biomarkers in clinical practice. The results of this review show that there is a considerable range of biomarkers proposed as alternative tools with high efficacy. Their identification in previous stages of the disease and routinely in non-cervical samples could help reduce the incidence and mortality rates of CC.  \nKeywords: cervical cancer; biomarkers; diagnosis; prognosis; non-cervical samples  \n1. Introduction  ","cbCaiajotOD9rXv6","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaiajotOD9rXv6","pdf",1126424,17,"English","# Abstract\n# Introduction\n## HPV risk factors and viral mechanisms\n## Prevention strategies and remaining challenges\n# Biomarkers in non-cervical samples (review focus)","[{\"question\":\"Why does cervical cancer incidence and mortality remain high despite prevention efforts?\",\"answer\":\"High-risk HPV infection is the primary driver, and outcomes remain poor due to gaps in early detection and patient reluctance toward cervical sampling, even when prevention strategies exist.\"},{\"question\":\"What are the main HPV types responsible for most cervical cancer cases?\",\"answer\":\"HPV16 and HPV18 are the etiological agents in approximately 70% of cervical cancer cases, with low-risk and high-risk HPV groups classified by oncogenic potential.\"},{\"question\":\"How do non-cervical samples support cervical cancer biomarker testing?\",\"answer\":\"Detection of biomarkers in blood, serum, plasma, urine, and vaginal fluids may reduce discomfort from cervical sampling, enabling sensitive and specific testing for diagnosis, prognosis, and patient monitoring.\"}]","Cervical Cancer Biomarkers in Non-Cervical Samples - Emerging Tools for Diagnosis and Prognosis | PDF",1790217758,43]