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Over 6–16 years (n=324) followed annually from 2014–2020 (959 longitudinal PWV measures), centile curves by age and height were built with the LMS 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Vicorder Device  \nAngiology  \n2026, Vol. 77(2) 229–240 © The Author(s) 2025  \nArticle reuse guidelines: [sagepub.com/journals-permissions](sagepub.com/journals-permissions)[ ](sagepub.com/journals-permissions)[DOI: 10.1177/00033197251314218](DOI: 10.1177/00033197251314218)[ ](DOI: 10.1177/00033197251314218)[journals.sagepub.com/home/ang](journals.sagepub.com/home/ang)  \nClaire Davies, PhD 1, Florin Vaida, PhD2*, Kennedy Otwombe, PhD3,4*, Mark F. Cotton, MD PhD5, Sara Browne, MD MPH6*,  \nand Steve Innes, MD PhD5,7*  \nAbstract  \nAtherosclerosis often starts in childhood, tracking to adulthood. In children, early vascular disease can be detected as arterial stiffness. Carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity is considered the non-invasive gold standard method for measuring arterial stiffness and widely accepted for use in children. We define pulse wave velocity (PWV) reference values for African children, ina cohort of children and adolescents living in Cape Town, South Africa, using the oscillometric Vicorder device, and considering the anatomical pathway in growing children. Three hundred and twenty four children (6–16 years old) were followed annually at Tygerberg Hospital, from March 2014 to March 2020, yielding 959 longitudinal PWV measurements. Centile curves for males and females by age and height were constructed using the Lamda-Mu-Sigma (LMS) method. Our study demonstrates that African children have a relatively flat PWV throughout childhood and early adolescence, from 7 to 14 years of age, and between 120 and 170 cm standing height. These gender-specific percentiles for age and height will allow accurate surveillance of arterial elasticity in African children over time. The identification of children at high risk is important given the long-term health implications and the effectiveness of early intervention to prevent progression to cardiovascular disease.  \nKeywords  \nchildren, pulse wave velocity, PWV, cardiovascular risk, reference values  \nIntroduction  \nCardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death globally. Over three-quarters of CVD deaths occur in lowand middle- income countries.1 In Sub-Saharan Africa, cardiovascular disease is the second leading cause of death, second only to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) .2 Risk factors include hypertension, smoking, diabetes mellitus, obesity, physical inactivity, and poor dietary patterns,3 often compounded by underlying risks such as poverty, stress, and hereditary factors.1  \nAlthough CVD and atherosclerosis clinically present in middle and late adulthood, atherosclerosis often starts in childhood, tracking to adulthood.4,5 Atherosclerosis can be prevented through dietary and physical activity interventions—potentially delaying or preventing CVD later in life.4 Pulse wave velocity (PWV), specifically carotid-femoral PWV is currently considered the non-invasive gold standard method of measuring arterial stiffness,6 and is widely accepted for the assessment of vascular stiffness in children and young adults by the American Heart Association.7 PWV is highly associated with the degree of atherosclerosis, as reduced  \nelasticity leads to faster arterial pulse wave propagation. PWV is a potent predictor of incident cardiovascular  \n1 Division of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa  \n2Division of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, School of Public Health, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA  \n3Perinatal HIV Research Unit, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa  \n4School of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa  \n5Family Center for Research with Ubuntu, Department of Paediatrics and Child Health, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa 6School of Pu","cbCaicbbpZuPkfIl","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaicbbpZuPkfIl","pdf",1007827,12,"English","# Abstract\n# Introduction","[{\"question\":\"What is carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity used for in this study?\",\"answer\":\"It is used as a non-invasive gold-standard measure of arterial stiffness, enabling assessment of early vascular disease in children and adolescents.\"},{\"question\":\"How were the PWV reference values obtained?\",\"answer\":\"Carotid-femoral PWV reference values were derived from longitudinal measurements in children living in Cape Town, South Africa, using the oscillometric Vicorder device.\"},{\"question\":\"What modeling approach was used to construct the centile curves?\",\"answer\":\"Centile curves for males and females were constructed by age and height using the Lamda-Mu-Sigma (LMS) method.\"}]","Carotid-Femoral Pulse Wave Velocity in Children in South Africa - Reference Values for the Vicorder Device | PDF",1790755557]