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Clifford1,†, Nichola Manu2,†, Qian Yang3, Zeeshan Arif1, David Aggen4, Michael E. Bryan5,6, Aditi Gupta4, Heather Shaw7,8, David Church9, Philippa Corrie10, Natalia Savelyeva2, Christian Ottensmeier2, Sarah Danson11,12  and Robert Jones2,*  \n1Colorectal and Peritoneal Oncology Centre (CPOC), The Christie NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester, UK 2The Liverpool Head and Neck Centre, The University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK  \n3Centre for Human Genetics, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK  \n4Genitourinary Oncology Service, Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Centre, New York, New York, USA 5Centre for Immuno-Oncology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK  \n6Cancer Program, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA 7Department of Medical Oncology, University College London Hospital, London, UK 8Department of Medical Oncology, Mount Vernon Cancer Centre, London, UK  \n9Centre for Immuno-Oncology, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK 10Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, UK  \n11Division of Clinical Medicine, School of Medicine and Population Health, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK 12UK Vaccine Innovation Pathway, National Institute for Health and Care Research, London, UK  \n*Correspondence to: Robert Jones, Department of Molecular and Clinical Cancer Medicine, University of Liverpool, Biosciences Building, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 7BE, UK ([e-mail: Robjones@liverpool.ac.uk](e-mail: Robjones@liverpool.ac.uk))  \n†Joint first authors.  \nAbstract  \nBackground: There has been an increasing focus on the potential of cancer vaccines as a therapeutic oncological option, aiming to harness the immune system to recognize and eliminate malignant cells. Unlike traditional therapies, vaccines exploit tumourassociated antigens and neoantigens to generate durable, tumour-specific immune responses.  \nMethods: This review provides a comprehensive overview of current vaccine strategies, their clinical applications, and implications for surgical oncology.  \nResults: Clinical trials highlight promising results in high-mutational burden cancers such as melanoma, lung, and bladder cancer, as well as in traditionally ‘cold’ tumours like pancreatic cancer. Combination strategies, particularly with checkpoint inhibitors, have shown enhanced efficacy, exemplified by messenger RNA-4157/V940 and autogene cevumeran in adjuvant settings. Off-the-shelf tumour-associated antigen vaccines offer scalability but face challenges of tolerance and limited specificity. Early data suggest vaccines may improve relapse-free survival and induce antigen spreading, broadening immune responses beyond the initial targets. Conclusion: Cancer vaccines are poised to complement surgery and systemic therapies, particularly in the perioperative window. Their integration into multimodal treatment strategies may redefine precision oncology, offering durable disease control and improved patient outcomes.  \nIntroduction  \nCancer vaccines for solid tumours have gained increasing attention over recent years. Tumour growth is driven by mutations that promote uncontrolled cell survival and proliferation, and understanding these mutations has been essential for developing targeted treatments and personalized medicine1. Some of these mutations produce abnormally expressed surface proteins that the immune system can recognize as foreign, paving the way for novel treatments that harness the inherent weaknesses in cancer immunology.  \nCancer immunology focuses on how the immune system detects and controls tumour cells. The immune system consists of innate and adaptive branches. Whereas the innate immune system provides an immediate response, the adaptive immune system, particularly T cells, ","cbCaibs6kaEBYPOW","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaibs6kaEBYPOW","pdf",8175777,13,"English","# Abstract\n# Introduction","[{\"question\":\"What immune mechanisms do cancer vaccines aim to activate?\",\"answer\":\"Cancer vaccines are designed to harness tumour-associated antigens and neoantigens to generate durable, tumour-specific immune responses. They rely on antigen presentation and subsequent activation of T cells to recognize and destroy tumour cells.\"},{\"question\":\"Which tumour types show promising results in vaccine clinical trials?\",\"answer\":\"Clinical trials highlight encouraging outcomes in high-mutational burden cancers such as melanoma, lung, and bladder cancer. The review also notes potential activity in traditionally “cold” tumours, including pancreatic cancer.\"},{\"question\":\"Why are combination strategies important for cancer vaccines?\",\"answer\":\"The review reports enhanced efficacy when vaccines are combined with checkpoint inhibitors. It also highlights that such multimodal approaches can broaden immune responses beyond initial targets and may improve relapse-free survival.\"}]","Cancer vaccines: comprehensive review | PDF",1790102604,33]