[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"doc-seo-591780-105":3,"detail-sidebar-cat-0-en-105":81,"doc-detail-591780-en":130},{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":6},0,"ok",{"site_id":7,"language":8,"slug":9,"title":10,"keywords":11,"description":12,"schema_data":13,"social_meta":74,"head_meta":76,"extra_data":78,"updated_unix":80},105,"en","can-virtual-noticing-enhance-l2-students-lexical-complexity-a-study-of-the-effects-of-online-discussions-on-l2-learners-lexical-complexity","Can Virtual Noticing Enhance L2 Students’ Lexical Complexity? - A Study of the Effects of Online Discussions on L2 Learners’ Lexical Complexity","","The primary aim of this study was to investigate how online discussions influence L2 learners’ lexical complexity through qualitative and quantitative methods. In a quasi-experimental design, 50 third-year University of Bahrain L2 students were split into an experimental group (in-class plus online discussions) and a control group (in-class only). Lexical variation, density, and richness were analyzed using TTR, L/W, and P_Lex lambda, with central tendency statistics and independent-sample t-tests. Findings indicate significantly enhanced lexical complexity via virtual discussion.",{"@graph":14,"@context":73},[15,34,56],{"@type":16,"itemListElement":17},"BreadcrumbList",[18,23,27,31],{"item":19,"name":20,"@type":21,"position":22},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",1,{"item":24,"name":25,"@type":21,"position":26},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/","Document",2,{"item":28,"name":29,"@type":21,"position":30},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/research-report/","Research & Report",3,{"item":32,"name":10,"@type":21,"position":33},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/can-virtual-noticing-enhance-l2-students-lexical-complexity-a-study-of-the-effects-of-online-discussions-on-l2-learners-lexical-complexity/591780/",4,{"url":32,"name":10,"@type":35,"image":36,"author":41,"headline":10,"publisher":44,"fileFormat":47,"inLanguage":8,"description":12,"dateModified":48,"datePublished":49,"encodingFormat":47,"isAccessibleForFree":50,"interactionStatistic":51},"DigitalDocument",{"url":37,"@type":38,"width":39,"height":40},"https://docshare.wps.com/thumbnails/can-virtual-noticing-enhance-l2-students-lexical-complexity-a-study-of-the-effects-of-online-discussions-on-l2-learners-lexical-complexity/591780.png","ImageObject",300,407,{"name":42,"@type":43},"Dipper","Person",{"url":19,"name":45,"@type":46},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-11-03","2026-10-15",true,{"@type":52,"interactionType":53,"userInteractionCount":55},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":54},"ViewAction",8,{"@type":57,"mainEntity":58},"FAQPage",[59,65,69],{"name":60,"@type":61,"acceptedAnswer":62},"What is the study’s main objective?","Question",{"text":63,"@type":64},"To examine whether using online discussions can enhance L2 learners’ lexical complexity, focusing on lexical variation, lexical density, and lexical richness.","Answer",{"name":66,"@type":61,"acceptedAnswer":67},"How were the participants organized in the quasi-experimental study?",{"text":68,"@type":64},"Fifty third-year University of Bahrain L2 students were divided into an experimental group (in-class discussions plus online discussions) and a control group (in-class discussions only).",{"name":70,"@type":61,"acceptedAnswer":71},"Which measures were used to evaluate lexical complexity?",{"text":72,"@type":64},"Lexical variation, density, and richness were assessed using type/token ratio (TTR), L/W (lexical words per total words), and P_Lex lambda, analyzed with independent-sample t-tests.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":32,"og:type":75,"og:title":10,"og:site_name":45,"og:description":12},"article",{"robots":77,"canonical":32},"index,follow",{"doc_id":79,"site_id":7},591780,1792192527,{"code":4,"msg":82,"data":83},"success",[84,88,92,96,101,106,111,114,119,122,126],{"id":22,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":85,"show_sort_weight":86,"slug":87},"Story & Novel",90,"story-novel",{"id":26,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":89,"show_sort_weight":90,"slug":91},"Literature",80,"literature",{"id":33,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":93,"show_sort_weight":94,"slug":95},"Exam",70,"exam",{"id":97,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":98,"show_sort_weight":99,"slug":100},5,"Comic",60,"comic",{"id":102,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":103,"show_sort_weight":104,"slug":105},6,"Technology",50,"technology",{"id":107,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":108,"show_sort_weight":109,"slug":110},7,"Healthcare",40,"healthcare",{"id":55,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":29,"show_sort_weight":112,"slug":113},30,"research-report",{"id":115,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":116,"show_sort_weight":117,"slug":118},9,"Religion & Spirituality",20,"religion-spirituality",{"id":117,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":120,"show_sort_weight":117,"slug":121},"World Cup","world-cup",{"id":123,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":124,"show_sort_weight":123,"slug":125},10,"Lifestyle","lifestyle",{"id":127,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":128,"show_sort_weight":97,"slug":129},19,"General","general",{"code":4,"msg":82,"data":131},{"doc_id":79,"user_id":132,"nickname":42,"user_avatar":133,"doc_module":4,"category_id":55,"category_name":29,"doc_title":10,"doc_description":12,"doc_content":134,"file_id":135,"file_url":136,"file_type":137,"file_size":138,"view_count":55,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":22,"is_downloadable":22,"audit_status":22,"page_count":139,"language":140,"language_code":8,"site_id":7,"html_lang":8,"table_of_contents":141,"faqs":142,"seo_title":143,"seo_description":12,"update_tm":144,"read_time":145,"preview_page_count":4},1374404997633,"https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/davatar_a8503ba1806abce46bf441b54a3ca4cd","Can Virtual Noticing Enhance L2 Students’ Lexical Complexity? A Study of the Effects of Online Discussions on L2 Learners’Lexical Complexity  \nArab Journal of Applied Linguistics e-ISSN 2490-4198  \nVol. 5, No. 2 , December 2020 , 32-54 © AJAL  \n[http://www.arjals.com](http://www.arjals.com)  \nDiana Al Jahromi  \nUniversity of Bahrain, Bahrain  \nAbstract  \nThe primary aim of this study was to investigate the impact of using online discussions on L2 learners’ lexical complexity (LC) using a blend of qualitative and quantitative data collection methods to measure how L2 learners’ lexical variation, lexical density, and lexical richness can be influenced by online interactions facilitated in virtual discussions. In a quasi-experimental study, 50 3rd –year University of Bahrain L2 students were divided into an experimental group, which was involved in both in-class discussions and online discussion, and a control group, which was involved in in-class discussions only. These students’ lexical variation, lexical density, and lexical richness were analysed and compared using three measures: type/token ratio (TTR), the total number of lexical words divided by total no. of words (L/W) and P_Lex lambda using measures of central tendency and independent sample t-tests. Overall results suggest that L2 learners’ LC can be significantly enhanced through the utilization of online discussions in L2 learning settings due to a number of interrelated cognitive factors. Accordingly, a number of significant implications and recommendations have been delineated.  \nKeywords: Lexical complexity, Lexical variation, Lexical density, Online discussions, Noticing  \nIntroduction  \nIn formal EFL tertiary education, it is often stressed that language exposure and comprehensible linguistic data are significant conditions of adequate learning. Learners are exposed to such input through proper L2 instruction, authentic material, and communication. Once properly exposed, a number of reliable measures of language development are employed to gauge the degree of possible development in the language skills (Ellis, 2009) . One of these measures is the complexity of the learners’ output, whether grammatical or lexical. Complexity refers to the “extent to which learners produce elaborated language” (Ellis & Barkhuizen, 2005, p.139) . According to Skehan (1996), complexity reveals how prepared L2 learners are to take risks and restructure their interlanguages. More specifically, lexical complexity entails that “a wide variety of basic and sophisticated words are available and can be accessed quickly” (Wolfe-Quintero, Inagaki & Kim, 1998, p.101) . It marks the variety and sophistication of the words used and is reflected in L2 writing in many dimensions such as lexical variation/richness, and lexical density. While lexical variation (LV) reflects the number of different words in any spoken or written text , lexical density (LD), as defined by Halliday (1985), is “a measure of the density of information in any passage of text, according to how tightly the lexical items (content words) have been packed into the grammatical structure”(p.10). The current research study defines LD as a concept that measures the complexity of using functional and content words in any given discourse. Development in these dimensions and others related to lexical complexity is a key measure of language development and a clear indicator of a writer’sadoption of discourse conventions (Ishikawa, 2015; Nation, 2011) . For instance, a positive and interconnected correlation between lexical variation and writing quality has been shown in a number of studies and lexical density has been found higher in the written texts with more unpredictable lexical words whereas speech has more predictable grammatical words (Engber, 1995; Halliday, 1985; Laufer, 1994; Read, 2000; Zhai, 2016) .  \nReview of the Literature  \nDevelopment of learners’ lexical knowledge has attracted a number of researchers’ attention (Ai ","cbCaitqFLZFmJ6cM","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaitqFLZFmJ6cM","pdf",238169,23,"English","# Introduction\n# Review of the Literature\n## Lexical complexity and its dimensions\n## Type-token ratio (TTR) and lexical variation","[{\"question\":\"What is the study’s main objective?\",\"answer\":\"To examine whether using online discussions can enhance L2 learners’ lexical complexity, focusing on lexical variation, lexical density, and lexical richness.\"},{\"question\":\"How were the participants organized in the quasi-experimental study?\",\"answer\":\"Fifty third-year University of Bahrain L2 students were divided into an experimental group (in-class discussions plus online discussions) and a control group (in-class discussions only).\"},{\"question\":\"Which measures were used to evaluate lexical complexity?\",\"answer\":\"Lexical variation, density, and richness were assessed using type/token ratio (TTR), L/W (lexical words per total words), and P_Lex lambda, analyzed with independent-sample t-tests.\"}]","Can Virtual Noticing Enhance L2 Students’ Lexical Complexity? - A Study of the Effects of Online Discussions on L2 Learners’ Lexical Complexity | PDF",1792073192,58]