[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"doc-seo-589219-105":3,"detail-sidebar-cat-0-en-105":84,"doc-detail-589219-en":134},{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":6},0,"ok",{"site_id":7,"language":8,"slug":9,"title":10,"keywords":11,"description":12,"schema_data":13,"social_meta":77,"head_meta":79,"extra_data":81,"updated_unix":83},105,"en","age-period-and-cohort-effects-on-adult-literacy-skills-in-the-united-states","Age, Period, and Cohort Effects on Adult Literacy Skills in the United States","","Adult literacy skills are essential for economic well-being and social participation at both individual and societal levels. Monitoring long-term trends and identifying sources of skill gain or loss is crucial, yet temporal drivers of variation remain insufficiently studied. This study analyzes three nationally representative datasets (1994, 2003, and 2012/2014/2017) and uses an age-period-cohort hierarchical cross-classified random effects model to quantify differences across cohorts (1930–1995) and time periods (1994–2017).",{"@graph":14,"@context":76},[15,34,55],{"@type":16,"itemListElement":17},"BreadcrumbList",[18,23,27,31],{"item":19,"name":20,"@type":21,"position":22},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",1,{"item":24,"name":25,"@type":21,"position":26},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/","Document",2,{"item":28,"name":29,"@type":21,"position":30},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/research-report/","Research & Report",3,{"item":32,"name":10,"@type":21,"position":33},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/age-period-and-cohort-effects-on-adult-literacy-skills-in-the-united-states/589219/",4,{"url":32,"name":10,"@type":35,"image":36,"author":41,"headline":10,"publisher":44,"fileFormat":47,"inLanguage":8,"description":12,"dateModified":48,"datePublished":49,"encodingFormat":47,"isAccessibleForFree":50,"interactionStatistic":51},"DigitalDocument",{"url":37,"@type":38,"width":39,"height":40},"https://docshare.wps.com/thumbnails/age-period-and-cohort-effects-on-adult-literacy-skills-in-the-united-states/589219.png","ImageObject",300,407,{"name":42,"@type":43},"Đào","Person",{"url":19,"name":45,"@type":46},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-11-07","2026-10-15",true,{"@type":52,"interactionType":53,"userInteractionCount":33},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":54},"ViewAction",{"@type":56,"mainEntity":57},"FAQPage",[58,64,68,72],{"name":59,"@type":60,"acceptedAnswer":61},"What does the study investigate about adult literacy skills in the United States?","Question",{"text":62,"@type":63},"It documents recent trends in adult literacy skills over time and examines how age, period, and cohort effects contribute to temporal variation.","Answer",{"name":65,"@type":60,"acceptedAnswer":66},"Which datasets are analyzed in the study?",{"text":67,"@type":63},"The study uses three nationally representative assessment datasets: the 1994 International Adult Literacy Survey, the 2003 International Adult Literacy and Life Skills Survey, and the 2012/2014/2017 Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies.",{"name":69,"@type":60,"acceptedAnswer":70},"How are age, period, and cohort effects modeled in the research?",{"text":71,"@type":63},"The study applies an age-period-cohort hierarchical cross-classified random effects model to estimate variation across cohorts (1930–1995) and time periods (1994–2017).",{"name":73,"@type":60,"acceptedAnswer":74},"Why are literacy skills important according to the document?",{"text":75,"@type":63},"They are presented as critical assets supporting economic well-being and social participation, linked to human capital and also associated with outcomes such as civic engagement, social capital, and health.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":32,"og:type":78,"og:title":10,"og:site_name":45,"og:description":12},"article",{"robots":80,"canonical":32},"index,follow",{"doc_id":82,"site_id":7},589219,1792232002,{"code":4,"msg":85,"data":86},"success",[87,91,95,99,104,109,114,118,123,126,130],{"id":22,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":88,"show_sort_weight":89,"slug":90},"Story & Novel",90,"story-novel",{"id":26,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":92,"show_sort_weight":93,"slug":94},"Literature",80,"literature",{"id":33,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":96,"show_sort_weight":97,"slug":98},"Exam",70,"exam",{"id":100,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":101,"show_sort_weight":102,"slug":103},5,"Comic",60,"comic",{"id":105,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":106,"show_sort_weight":107,"slug":108},6,"Technology",50,"technology",{"id":110,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":111,"show_sort_weight":112,"slug":113},7,"Healthcare",40,"healthcare",{"id":115,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":29,"show_sort_weight":116,"slug":117},8,30,"research-report",{"id":119,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":120,"show_sort_weight":121,"slug":122},9,"Religion & Spirituality",20,"religion-spirituality",{"id":121,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":124,"show_sort_weight":121,"slug":125},"World Cup","world-cup",{"id":127,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":128,"show_sort_weight":127,"slug":129},10,"Lifestyle","lifestyle",{"id":131,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":132,"show_sort_weight":100,"slug":133},19,"General","general",{"code":4,"msg":85,"data":135},{"doc_id":82,"user_id":136,"nickname":42,"user_avatar":137,"doc_module":4,"category_id":115,"category_name":29,"doc_title":10,"doc_description":12,"doc_content":138,"file_id":139,"file_url":140,"file_type":141,"file_size":142,"view_count":33,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":22,"is_downloadable":22,"audit_status":22,"page_count":143,"language":144,"language_code":8,"site_id":7,"html_lang":8,"table_of_contents":145,"faqs":146,"seo_title":147,"seo_description":12,"update_tm":148,"read_time":149,"preview_page_count":4},1374402968488,"https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/davatar_29158cc5080c5b710cf443261637dec0","ADULT LITERACY EDUCATION WINTER 2023  \n| [http://doi.org/10.35847/TYamashita.TSmith.SSahoo. PCummins.5.1.4](http://doi.org/10.35847/TYamashita.TSmith.SSahoo. PCummins.5.1.4) |  |\n| --- | --- |\n|  | Research Article |\n\nAge, Period, and Cohort Effects on Adult Literacy Skills in the United States  \nTakashi Yamashita, University of Maryland, Baltimore County Thomas J. Smith, Northern Illinois University  \nPhyllis A. Cummins, Miami University  \nAcknowledgment: This research was in part supported by the Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, through Grant R305A170183 to Miami University and University of Maryland, Baltimore County. The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not represent views of the institute or the U.S. Department of Education.  \nAbstract  \nAdult literacy skills are critical assets of individuals as well as societies in terms of economic (e.g. , human capital) and social well-being. Thus, it is important to monitor the long-term trends and sources of skill gain/loss. Yet, temporal sources of adult literacy skill variation are understudied. The current study analyzed three comparable, nationally representative datasets including the 1994 International Adult Literacy Survey; the 2003 International Adult Literacy and Life Skills Survey; and the 2012/2014/2017 Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies. Results from the age-period-cohort hierarchical cross-classified random effects model showed significant variation in adult literacy skills across cohorts (1930-1995) and time periods (1994-2017) . Possible implications for adult education policies and future research needs were evaluated.  \nKeywords: Adult literacy, skill variation, human capital  \nThe objective of this study is to document recent trends of adult literacy skills in the United States across time as well as to examine potential temporal sources of literary skill variation—specifically, age, period, and cohort effects. Todo this, we analyze nationally representative large-scale assessment data with underutilized cross-classified multi-level modeling approach. A series of previous international studies across economically developed nations showed that  \nadult literacy is one of the most critical indicators of social and economic well-being, not only atthe individual level, but also at the societal level (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2000, 2019) . Results from the current study provide empirical evidence pertaining to recent trends of adult literacy and in turn, inform possible needs for adult education curriculum modifications and education policy interventions.  \n[Correspondence: yamataka@umbc.edu](Correspondence: yamataka@umbc.edu) 4  \nTheoretical and Policy Perspectives on Adult Literacy Human capital is a widely accepted critical asset for social and economic advancement in any society (Benhabib & Spiegel, 1994) . Human capital often is considered as consisting of individual and collective knowledge, skills, and experience, which jointly maximize economic benefits such as income and employment security of individuals as well as economic growth of nations (Becker, 1993) . Basic skills, such as literacy and numeracy, are known tobe core components of human capital. Indeed, basic skills seem to promote economic growth as well as, if not better than, common human capital determinants such as average years of education/schooling. Convincing evidence shows that, among OECD nations, improvement in average adult literacy skills are linked to the per capita growth in gross domestic product (GDP;(Coulombe & Tremblay, 2006) . Thus, monitoring the trends of literacy skills and identifying reasons for the changes are important from economic and education policy standpoints.  \nAdditionally, other benefits of increasing literacy skills have been documented. In general, economic outcomes have been the main areas of interest in this context. However, Reder (2020) argues that the","cbCaijTsuQSH6RwQ","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaijTsuQSH6RwQ","pdf",224182,17,"English","# Abstract\n## Adult literacy skills as human capital\n## Theoretical and policy perspectives\n## Age, period, and cohort effects on adult literacy","[{\"question\":\"What does the study investigate about adult literacy skills in the United States?\",\"answer\":\"It documents recent trends in adult literacy skills over time and examines how age, period, and cohort effects contribute to temporal variation.\"},{\"question\":\"Which datasets are analyzed in the study?\",\"answer\":\"The study uses three nationally representative assessment datasets: the 1994 International Adult Literacy Survey, the 2003 International Adult Literacy and Life Skills Survey, and the 2012/2014/2017 Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies.\"},{\"question\":\"How are age, period, and cohort effects modeled in the research?\",\"answer\":\"The study applies an age-period-cohort hierarchical cross-classified random effects model to estimate variation across cohorts (1930–1995) and time periods (1994–2017).\"},{\"question\":\"Why are literacy skills important according to the document?\",\"answer\":\"They are presented as critical assets supporting economic well-being and social participation, linked to human capital and also associated with outcomes such as civic engagement, social capital, and health.\"}]","Age, Period, and Cohort Effects on Adult Literacy Skills in the United States | PDF",1792066778,43]