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The discussion traces reform’s roots to backlash against school desegregation, shifts in business influence, and policy narratives emphasizing excellence and efficiency while limiting funding growth. It explains how accountability requirements created compliance under threat, fostered a “school reform industry,” and intensified stigmatization, while linking districts’ roles tightly to state policy and encouraging abdication of authority.",{"@graph":69,"@context":121},[70,84,104],{"@type":71,"itemListElement":72},"BreadcrumbList",[73,77,79,82],{"item":74,"name":75,"@type":76,"position":8},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":78,"name":9,"@type":76,"position":14},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/",{"item":80,"name":40,"@type":76,"position":81},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/research-report/",3,{"item":83,"name":65,"@type":76,"position":19},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/accountability-and-abdication-school-reform-and-urban-school-districts-in-the-era-of-accountability/603373/",{"url":83,"name":65,"@type":85,"image":86,"author":91,"headline":65,"publisher":94,"fileFormat":97,"inLanguage":63,"description":67,"dateModified":98,"datePublished":98,"encodingFormat":97,"isAccessibleForFree":99,"interactionStatistic":100},"DigitalDocument",{"url":87,"@type":88,"width":89,"height":90},"https://docshare.wps.com/thumbnails/accountability-and-abdication-school-reform-and-urban-school-districts-in-the-era-of-accountability/603373.png","ImageObject",300,407,{"name":92,"@type":93},"moss~","Person",{"url":74,"name":95,"@type":96},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-10-15",true,{"@type":101,"interactionType":102,"userInteractionCount":8},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":103},"ViewAction",{"@type":105,"mainEntity":106},"FAQPage",[107,113,117],{"name":108,"@type":109,"acceptedAnswer":110},"What historical forces shaped the current school reform era of accountability?","Question",{"text":111,"@type":112},"The text argues the reform era reflects deeper history, including backlash to school desegregation, reduced business involvement followed by renewed demands for scapegoats during the late 1970s, and narratives centered on excellence and efficiency.","Answer",{"name":114,"@type":109,"acceptedAnswer":115},"Why did accountability policies lead to difficulties producing measurable results?",{"text":116,"@type":112},"Schools were expected to pursue excellence under threat rather than support, and without resources they could do little beyond complying with standards and edicts, limiting measurable improvements.",{"name":118,"@type":109,"acceptedAnswer":119},"How did accountability affect the role of urban school districts?",{"text":120,"@type":112},"Accountability linked schools tightly to state policy, putting districts in a new position; some responded by abdicating authority over local schools, prompting the need to rethink districts as public institutions.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":83,"og:type":123,"og:title":65,"og:site_name":95,"og:description":67},"article",{"robots":125,"canonical":83},"index,follow",{"doc_id":127,"site_id":62},603373,1792107450,{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":130},{"doc_id":127,"user_id":131,"nickname":92,"user_avatar":132,"doc_module":4,"category_id":39,"category_name":40,"doc_title":65,"doc_description":67,"doc_content":133,"file_id":134,"file_url":135,"file_type":136,"file_size":137,"view_count":8,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":8,"is_downloadable":8,"audit_status":8,"page_count":138,"language":139,"language_code":63,"site_id":62,"html_lang":63,"table_of_contents":140,"faqs":141,"seo_title":142,"seo_description":67,"update_tm":143,"read_time":41},962090895452,"https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/davatar_a8503ba1806abce46bf441b54a3ca4cd","Michael E. Jennings is an associate professor in the Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies and director of African-American Studies in the College of Education and Human Development at the University of Texas at San Antonio; George W. Noblit is a professor in the School of Education at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; Bryan Brayboy is a faculty member at Arizona State University, Tempe, and is currently a senior fellow at the University of Alaska, Fairbanks; and Sheryl Cozart is a professor in the Graduate School of Education at George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia.  \nAccountability and Abdication:  \nSchool Reform and Urban School Districts in the Era of Accountability  \nBy Michael E. Jennings, George W. Noblit, Bryan Brayboy,& Sheryl Cozart  \nIntroduction  \nThe current school reform era has moved through a series of phases, coupling state centralization with a focus on school-level change at each step. Yet this era of reform also has a deeper history. In many ways, this era was a backlash to school desegregation. During school desegregation, educational policy became explicitly connected to promoting equity and challenging the dominance of whites and their interests. It also represented a decline in the influence of business and industry in educational affairs. It can be argued that the most progressive cases of school desegregation in the South were championed by business interests because of fears that the image of a racist community would undercut the migration of business to the South.  \nHowever, it is also true that schooling during desegregation clearly served wider social goals rather that reaching beyond the realm of economics. Many business leaders found it in their interest to avoid the controversy of desegregation by stepping away from direct involvement on school boards and other venues. However, the economic downturn of the late 1970s left business looking for scapegoats and education became the social institution of choice that fulfilled this need.  \nThe arguments contained in The NationAt Risk (National Commission on Education and Excellence, 1983) blamed schooling for a general societal decline and implicitly implicated that the problems in schools stemmed from a focus on equity. In the language of the times, excellence was touted as a necessity if America was to be economically competitive. In this deeper history, there was also an interest in“reining in” public funding while simultaneously facilitating the need for change, thus the argument was made that money was not the solution to the problem. In short, excellence was expected to come with no appreciable increases in funding for schools. Indeed, excellence would also be coupled with efficiency emanating from the creation of a competitive market in education that utilized proposals for vouchers and other measures.  \nThis deeper history then reveals the dynamics that would plague the school reform era until the present day. Schools were to redirect their efforts to excellence but they were to do so under conditions not of support but rather of threat. It should be of little surprise then that it proved rather difficult to produce dramatic demonstrations of measurable results. The threat itself became transformed into a movement that focused on specifying standards and then requiring schools to implement those standards. Yet without resources schools could do little more than simply comply with such edicts. This led policymakers and policy entrepreneurs to conclude that schools lacked the capacity to reform on their own, thus promoting the development of a school reform industry. Ironically, public funding would be made available to support this industry even if the schools had been denied funding for their earlier reform efforts. New American Schools (as one of the principal design organizations for school reform) decided that education was a new market and gave up its nonprofit to become a for-profit venture (Hare, 1","cbCaikc5LP8qGFq4","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaikc5LP8qGFq4","pdf",107712,12,"English","# Introduction\n## Historical phases of school reform\n## Excellence, efficiency, and funding constraints\n## Accountability and the school reform industry\n## Standards, testing, and district authority","[{\"question\":\"What historical forces shaped the current school reform era of accountability?\",\"answer\":\"The text argues the reform era reflects deeper history, including backlash to school desegregation, reduced business involvement followed by renewed demands for scapegoats during the late 1970s, and narratives centered on excellence and efficiency.\"},{\"question\":\"Why did accountability policies lead to difficulties producing measurable results?\",\"answer\":\"Schools were expected to pursue excellence under threat rather than support, and without resources they could do little beyond complying with standards and edicts, limiting measurable improvements.\"},{\"question\":\"How did accountability affect the role of urban school districts?\",\"answer\":\"Accountability linked schools tightly to state policy, putting districts in a new position; some responded by abdicating authority over local schools, prompting the need to rethink districts as public institutions.\"}]","Accountability and Abdication - School Reform and Urban School Districts in the Era of Accountability | PDF",1792096147]