[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"doc-detail-117283-en":3,"doc-seo-117283-105":29,"detail-sidebar-cat-0-en-105":90},{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":6},0,"success",{"doc_id":7,"user_id":8,"nickname":9,"user_avatar":10,"doc_module":4,"category_id":11,"category_name":12,"doc_title":13,"doc_description":14,"doc_content":15,"file_id":16,"file_url":17,"file_type":18,"file_size":19,"view_count":4,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":20,"is_downloadable":20,"audit_status":20,"page_count":21,"language":22,"language_code":23,"site_id":24,"html_lang":23,"table_of_contents":25,"faqs":26,"seo_title":13,"seo_description":14,"update_tm":27,"read_time":28},117283,8796095461564,"Liam","https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/davatar_155a257f0dc6eb9ab79c44ca47cae57d",8,"Research & Report","A Survey of Air Combat Behavior Modeling Using Machine Learning","With recent advances in machine learning, realistic air-combat agents in simulation have become an active research direction aimed at improving simulation-based pilot training. This survey reviews how reinforcement learning and imitation learning can reduce manual behavior-modeling effort and limit loss of domain knowledge. It highlights the remaining challenges in building adaptive agents that perform tactical maneuvers and operate weapons and sensors. It also covers transfer to military simulation systems and the need for standardization, providing recommendations to guide future modeling and research collaboration.","A survey of air combat behavior modeling using  \nmachine learning  \nPatrick Ribu Gorton, Andreas Strand, Karsten Brathen, Senior Member, IEEE  \nAbstract—With the recent advances in machine learning, creating agents that behave realistically in simulated air combat has become a growing field of interest. This survey explores the application of machine learning techniques for modeling air combat behavior, motivated by the potential to enhance simulation-based pilot training. Current simulated entities tend to lack realistic behavior, and traditional behavior modeling is laborintensive and prone to loss of essential domain knowledge between development steps. Advancements in reinforcement learning and imitation learning algorithms have demonstrated that agents may learn complex behavior from data, which could be faster and more scalable than manual methods. Yet, making adaptive agents capable of performing tactical maneuvers and operating weapons and sensors still poses a significant challenge.  \nThe survey examines applications, behavior model types, prevalent machine learning methods, and the technical and human challenges in developing adaptive and realistically behaving agents. Another challenge is the transfer of agents from learning environments to military simulation systems and the consequent demand for standardization.  \nFour primary recommendations are presented regarding increased emphasis on beyond-visual-range scenarios, multi-agent machine learning and cooperation, utilization of hierarchical behavior models, and initiatives for standardization and research collaboration. These recommendations aim to address current issues and guide the development of more comprehensive, adaptable, and realistic machine learning-based behavior models for air combat applications.  \nIndex Terms—Machine learning, intelligent agents, behavioral sciences, modeling, simulation, military systems.  \nI. INTRODUCTION  \nB EHAVIOR models are fundamental components of  \nsimulation-based fighter pilot training and other air combat applications. Computer-generated forces (CGFs) are autonomous simulated entities used in military simulations to represent friendly and opposing forces [1] . Modeling their behavior to make them act realistically and human-like is demanding. Consequently, in today ’s simulationbased training, pilots engage in combat with CGFs that act in predictable ways and generally lack realistic behavior. Therefore, the instructors must manually control many aspects of the CGFs to ensure the pilots get the training needed [2, 3] .  \nFreeman et al. [4] advocate four functional requirements to achieve realistic behavior, which are tactical inference, tactical action, modal behavior, and instructional capability.  \nPatrick Ribu Gorton (e-mail: [patrick-ribu.gorton@ffi.no](patrick-ribu.gorton@ffi.no)), Andreas Strand (email: [andreas.strand.so@gmail.com](andreas.strand.so@gmail.com)), and Karsten Brathen (e-mail: [karsten.brathen@ffi.no](karsten.brathen@ffi.no)) are with FFI (Norwegian Defence Research establishment), Instituttveien 20, 2007 Kjeller, Norway.  \nBesides training, realistic behavior models benefit applications like mission planning and tactics development. Modeling and simulation tools can help mission planners predict and evaluate the outcome of different scenarios, allowing refinement of strategies and tactics before the actual mission takes place [5] . Tactics development may leverage the creativity of ML agents that autonomously explore new strategies with few restrictions.  \nTraditionally, air combat behavior is created manually by first eliciting domain knowledge from subject matter experts (SMEs) and then creating a conceptual model reflecting this knowledge. Finally, the model is implemented in a computer program as a rule-based script, such as a decision tree or a finite state machine (FSM) [6] . This process is laborious and risks losing essential domain knowledge when transitioning from one step to another.  \nIn","cbCaiot1KZHdqe54","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaiot1KZHdqe54","pdf",507347,1,13,"English","en",105,"# Introduction\n## Motivation for realistic air-combat behavior models\n## Traditional rule-based approaches\n## Emergence of machine learning methods\n## Prior surveys and related work","[{\"question\":\"Why is realistic air combat behavior modeling important for fighter pilot training?\",\"answer\":\"Computer-generated forces are autonomous simulated entities that are often predictable and not human-like, requiring instructors to manually control many CGF aspects to meet training needs.\"},{\"question\":\"What limitations does traditional behavior modeling have?\",\"answer\":\"It relies on extracting domain knowledge from subject matter experts and implementing rule-based scripts, which is labor-intensive and risks losing essential domain knowledge across development steps.\"},{\"question\":\"Which machine learning techniques are emphasized for learning air-combat behavior?\",\"answer\":\"Reinforcement learning and imitation learning are highlighted as approaches that can learn complex behavior from data more efficiently and at greater scale than manual methods.\"}]",1785674986,33,{"code":4,"msg":30,"data":31},"ok",{"site_id":24,"language":23,"slug":32,"title":13,"keywords":33,"description":14,"schema_data":34,"social_meta":85,"head_meta":87,"extra_data":89,"updated_unix":27},"a-survey-of-air-combat-behavior-modeling-using-machine-learning","",{"@graph":35,"@context":84},[36,53,67],{"@type":37,"itemListElement":38},"BreadcrumbList",[39,43,47,50],{"item":40,"name":41,"@type":42,"position":20},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":44,"name":45,"@type":42,"position":46},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/","Document",2,{"item":48,"name":12,"@type":42,"position":49},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/research-report/",3,{"item":51,"name":13,"@type":42,"position":52},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/a-survey-of-air-combat-behavior-modeling-using-machine-learning/117283/",4,{"url":51,"name":13,"@type":54,"author":55,"headline":13,"publisher":57,"fileFormat":60,"inLanguage":23,"description":14,"dateModified":61,"datePublished":61,"encodingFormat":60,"isAccessibleForFree":62,"interactionStatistic":63},"DigitalDocument",{"name":9,"@type":56},"Person",{"url":40,"name":58,"@type":59},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-08-02",true,{"@type":64,"interactionType":65,"userInteractionCount":4},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":66},"ViewAction",{"@type":68,"mainEntity":69},"FAQPage",[70,76,80],{"name":71,"@type":72,"acceptedAnswer":73},"Why is realistic air combat behavior modeling important for fighter pilot training?","Question",{"text":74,"@type":75},"Computer-generated forces are autonomous simulated entities that are often predictable and not human-like, requiring instructors to manually control many CGF aspects to meet training needs.","Answer",{"name":77,"@type":72,"acceptedAnswer":78},"What limitations does traditional behavior modeling have?",{"text":79,"@type":75},"It relies on extracting domain knowledge from subject matter experts and implementing rule-based scripts, which is labor-intensive and risks losing essential domain knowledge across development steps.",{"name":81,"@type":72,"acceptedAnswer":82},"Which machine learning techniques are emphasized for learning air-combat behavior?",{"text":83,"@type":75},"Reinforcement learning and imitation learning are highlighted as approaches that can learn complex behavior from data more efficiently and at greater scale than manual methods.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":51,"og:type":86,"og:title":13,"og:site_name":58,"og:description":14},"article",{"robots":88,"canonical":51},"index,follow",{"doc_id":7,"site_id":24},{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":91},[92,96,100,104,109,114,119,122,127,130,134],{"id":20,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":45,"category_name":93,"show_sort_weight":94,"slug":95},"Story & Novel",90,"story-novel",{"id":46,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":45,"category_name":97,"show_sort_weight":98,"slug":99},"Literature",80,"literature",{"id":52,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":45,"category_name":101,"show_sort_weight":102,"slug":103},"Exam",70,"exam",{"id":105,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":45,"category_name":106,"show_sort_weight":107,"slug":108},5,"Comic",60,"comic",{"id":110,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":45,"category_name":111,"show_sort_weight":112,"slug":113},6,"Technology",50,"technology",{"id":115,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":45,"category_name":116,"show_sort_weight":117,"slug":118},7,"Healthcare",40,"healthcare",{"id":11,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":45,"category_name":12,"show_sort_weight":120,"slug":121},30,"research-report",{"id":123,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":45,"category_name":124,"show_sort_weight":125,"slug":126},9,"Religion & Spirituality",20,"religion-spirituality",{"id":125,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":45,"category_name":128,"show_sort_weight":125,"slug":129},"World Cup","world-cup",{"id":131,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":45,"category_name":132,"show_sort_weight":131,"slug":133},10,"Lifestyle","lifestyle",{"id":135,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":45,"category_name":136,"show_sort_weight":105,"slug":137},19,"General","general"]