[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"detail-sidebar-cat-0-en-105":3,"doc-seo-460474-105":59,"doc-detail-460474-en":131},{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":6},0,"success",[7,13,18,23,28,33,38,43,48,51,55],{"id":8,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":10,"show_sort_weight":11,"slug":12},1,"Document","Story & Novel",90,"story-novel",{"id":14,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":15,"show_sort_weight":16,"slug":17},2,"Literature",80,"literature",{"id":19,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":20,"show_sort_weight":21,"slug":22},4,"Exam",70,"exam",{"id":24,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":25,"show_sort_weight":26,"slug":27},5,"Comic",60,"comic",{"id":29,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":30,"show_sort_weight":31,"slug":32},6,"Technology",50,"technology",{"id":34,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":35,"show_sort_weight":36,"slug":37},7,"Healthcare",40,"healthcare",{"id":39,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":40,"show_sort_weight":41,"slug":42},8,"Research & Report",30,"research-report",{"id":44,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":45,"show_sort_weight":46,"slug":47},9,"Religion & Spirituality",20,"religion-spirituality",{"id":46,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":49,"show_sort_weight":46,"slug":50},"World Cup","world-cup",{"id":52,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":53,"show_sort_weight":52,"slug":54},10,"Lifestyle","lifestyle",{"id":56,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":57,"show_sort_weight":24,"slug":58},19,"General","general",{"code":4,"msg":60,"data":61},"ok",{"site_id":62,"language":63,"slug":64,"title":65,"keywords":66,"description":67,"schema_data":68,"social_meta":124,"head_meta":126,"extra_data":128,"updated_unix":130},105,"en","a-review-of-multiple-sclerosis-from-pathophysiology-to-latest-therapeutic-advances","A review of multiple sclerosis - From pathophysiology to latest therapeutic advances","","Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic autoimmune disorder marked by inflammation, demyelination, and neurodegeneration in the central nervous system (CNS). It mainly affects women and young adults, with environmental and genetic factors contributing to disease onset. MS produces diverse neurological symptoms because CNS lesions are disseminated, and its clinical course varies across RRMS, SPMS, and PPMS. Diagnosis relies on clinical assessment, MRI, and cerebrospinal fluid analysis using the McDonald criteria, while current therapies aim to reduce relapses and disability progression. Emerging approaches include remyelination and neuroprotective strategies, along with rare surgical options for severe symptoms.",{"@graph":69,"@context":123},[70,84,106],{"@type":71,"itemListElement":72},"BreadcrumbList",[73,77,79,82],{"item":74,"name":75,"@type":76,"position":8},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":78,"name":9,"@type":76,"position":14},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/",{"item":80,"name":35,"@type":76,"position":81},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/healthcare/",3,{"item":83,"name":65,"@type":76,"position":19},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/a-review-of-multiple-sclerosis-from-pathophysiology-to-latest-therapeutic-advances/460474/",{"url":83,"name":65,"@type":85,"image":86,"author":91,"headline":65,"publisher":94,"fileFormat":97,"inLanguage":63,"description":67,"dateModified":98,"datePublished":99,"encodingFormat":97,"isAccessibleForFree":100,"interactionStatistic":101},"DigitalDocument",{"url":87,"@type":88,"width":89,"height":90},"https://docshare.wps.com/thumbnails/a-review-of-multiple-sclerosis-from-pathophysiology-to-latest-therapeutic-advances/460474.png","ImageObject",300,407,{"name":92,"@type":93},"Logic","Person",{"url":74,"name":95,"@type":96},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-11-01","2026-09-30",true,{"@type":102,"interactionType":103,"userInteractionCount":105},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":104},"ViewAction",11,{"@type":107,"mainEntity":108},"FAQPage",[109,115,119],{"name":110,"@type":111,"acceptedAnswer":112},"What pathological features characterize multiple sclerosis?","Question",{"text":113,"@type":114},"Multiple sclerosis is defined by focal demyelination and the formation of plaques in the brain, spinal cord, and optic nerves, with secondary axonal damage resulting from impaired myelin restoration.","Answer",{"name":116,"@type":111,"acceptedAnswer":117},"How is multiple sclerosis diagnosed?",{"text":118,"@type":114},"Diagnosis is based on clinical evaluation, MRI findings, and cerebrospinal fluid analysis, with the McDonald criteria used to confirm dissemination in time and space.",{"name":120,"@type":111,"acceptedAnswer":121},"What treatment strategies are discussed for multiple sclerosis?",{"text":122,"@type":114},"Current management emphasizes disease-modifying therapies and steroids to manage relapses and reduce long-term disability, while novel options such as remyelination and neuroprotective agents aim to advance care and improve quality of life.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":83,"og:type":125,"og:title":65,"og:site_name":95,"og:description":67},"article",{"robots":127,"canonical":83},"index,follow",{"doc_id":129,"site_id":62},460474,1790890677,{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":132},{"doc_id":129,"user_id":133,"nickname":92,"user_avatar":134,"doc_module":4,"category_id":34,"category_name":35,"doc_title":65,"doc_description":67,"doc_content":135,"file_id":136,"file_url":137,"file_type":138,"file_size":139,"view_count":105,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":8,"is_downloadable":8,"audit_status":8,"page_count":140,"language":141,"language_code":63,"site_id":62,"html_lang":63,"table_of_contents":142,"faqs":143,"seo_title":144,"seo_description":67,"update_tm":145,"read_time":146,"preview_page_count":4},1099513958762,"https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/avatar/1000023916a998db790?x-image-process=image/resize,m_fixed,w_180,h_180&k=1784791008015729253","AIMS Neuroscience, 12(4): 514–538.  \nDOI: 10.3934/Neuroscience.2025026  \nReceived: 31 July 2025  \nRevised: 10 October 2025  \nAccepted: 23 October 2025  \nPublished: 31 October 2025  \n[https://www.aimspress.com/journal/neuroscience](https://www.aimspress.com/journal/neuroscience)  \nReview  \nA review of multiple sclerosis: From pathophysiology to latest therapeutic advances  \nArosh S. Perera Molligoda Arachchige1,*, Jad El Choueiri2, Francesca Pellicanò2, Francesco Laurelli2, Gabriel Amorim Moreira Alves2 and Niccolò Stomeo2  \n1 Faculty of Medicine & Surgery, University of Milan, Via Festa del Perdono 7, 20122 Milano MI, Lombardy, Italy  \n2 Humanitas University, Via Rita Levi Montalcini 4, Pieve Emanuele 20072, Lombardy, Italy  \n* Correspondence: Email: [aroshperera@outlook.it](aroshperera@outlook.it) ; Tel: +393278546482.  \nAbstract: Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic autoimmune disorder characterized by inflammation, demyelination, and neurodegeneration within the central nervous system (CNS) . It predominantly affects women and young adults, with environmental and genetic factors contributing to its onset. MS presents a wide range of neurological symptoms due to the scattering of lesions in the CNS, often leading to vision, sensorimotor, and cognitive impairments. The clinical course of MS varies, with relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS) being the most common, followed by secondary progressive MS (SPMS) and primary progressive MS (PPMS). Diagnosis is based on clinical evaluation, MRI findings, and cerebrospinal fluid analysis, with the McDonald criteria playing a key role in confirming dissemination in time and space. Current treatments, such as disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) and steroids, focus on managing relapses and reducing long-term disability. Novel therapies, including remyelination and neuroprotective agents, are showing promise in advancing care. While these medications can slow progression and improve quality of life, MS remains an incurable disease that requires ongoing research to find more effective therapies. Surgical interventions are rare but can address severe symptoms like spasticity and bladder dysfunction, contributing to an overall personalized management approach.  \nKeywords: multiple sclerosis; autoimmune disease; central nervous system; demyelination; neuroinflammation; disease-modifying therapies; magnetic resonance imaging; neuroprotection; Bruton’s tyrosine kinase inhibitors; stem cell therapy; McDonald criteria  \n1. Introduction  \nMultiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory demyelinating disease that selectively affects the central nervous system (CNS) . It is a primary disease of the CNS [1]. The pathological hallmark is focal demyelination, forming focal lesions known as plaques within the brain, spinal cord, and optic nerves. Since oligodendrocytes are not always able to restore the myelin, astrocytes produce gliotic plaques, a type of scars that cause a block in the transmission as secondary axonal damage [2,3] . Because of the pathological association with demyelination and inflammation, MS is considered an autoimmune disease [4] . To date, the precise trigger of MS remains unknown; however, it is well established that the disease involves immune system activation. Although MS is not primarily an antibody-mediated condition, disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) that modulate the immune response have been shown to reduce the frequency and severity of relapses and may slow disability progression.  \nThis review aims to provide a state-of-the-art synthesis by integrating the 2024 revision of the McDonald criteria, to summarize cutting-edge disease-modifying strategies such as Bruton’s tyrosine kinase inhibitors and the emerging AMIGO-3 remyelination target, and to critically examine how these advances are reshaping both diagnosis and treatment paradigms.  \n2. Epidemiology  \nMS is a chronic autoimmune disorder that disproportionately affects women, with females about 2–3 times more likely than ","cbCaiqh1DXq59XNc","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaiqh1DXq59XNc","pdf",1088778,25,"English","# Introduction\n# Epidemiology\n# Etiopathogenesis","[{\"question\":\"What pathological features characterize multiple sclerosis?\",\"answer\":\"Multiple sclerosis is defined by focal demyelination and the formation of plaques in the brain, spinal cord, and optic nerves, with secondary axonal damage resulting from impaired myelin restoration.\"},{\"question\":\"How is multiple sclerosis diagnosed?\",\"answer\":\"Diagnosis is based on clinical evaluation, MRI findings, and cerebrospinal fluid analysis, with the McDonald criteria used to confirm dissemination in time and space.\"},{\"question\":\"What treatment strategies are discussed for multiple sclerosis?\",\"answer\":\"Current management emphasizes disease-modifying therapies and steroids to manage relapses and reduce long-term disability, while novel options such as remyelination and neuroprotective agents aim to advance care and improve quality of life.\"}]","A review of multiple sclerosis - From pathophysiology to latest therapeutic advances | PDF",1790758583,63]