[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"detail-sidebar-cat-0-en-105":3,"doc-seo-326368-105":59,"doc-detail-326368-en":131},{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":6},0,"success",[7,13,18,23,28,33,38,43,48,51,55],{"id":8,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":10,"show_sort_weight":11,"slug":12},1,"Document","Story & Novel",90,"story-novel",{"id":14,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":15,"show_sort_weight":16,"slug":17},2,"Literature",80,"literature",{"id":19,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":20,"show_sort_weight":21,"slug":22},4,"Exam",70,"exam",{"id":24,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":25,"show_sort_weight":26,"slug":27},5,"Comic",60,"comic",{"id":29,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":30,"show_sort_weight":31,"slug":32},6,"Technology",50,"technology",{"id":34,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":35,"show_sort_weight":36,"slug":37},7,"Healthcare",40,"healthcare",{"id":39,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":40,"show_sort_weight":41,"slug":42},8,"Research & Report",30,"research-report",{"id":44,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":45,"show_sort_weight":46,"slug":47},9,"Religion & Spirituality",20,"religion-spirituality",{"id":46,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":49,"show_sort_weight":46,"slug":50},"World Cup","world-cup",{"id":52,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":53,"show_sort_weight":52,"slug":54},10,"Lifestyle","lifestyle",{"id":56,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":57,"show_sort_weight":24,"slug":58},19,"General","general",{"code":4,"msg":60,"data":61},"ok",{"site_id":62,"language":63,"slug":64,"title":65,"keywords":66,"description":67,"schema_data":68,"social_meta":124,"head_meta":126,"extra_data":128,"updated_unix":130},105,"en","a-history-of-modern-computing","A History of Modern Computing","","A History of Modern Computing presents a chronological account of how computing evolved from commercial systems after 1945 through the rise of software, minicomputers, mainframes, chips, personal computers, and networked workstations to the era of the Internet. Drawing on major developments and industry and policy shifts, it connects technical change with the people and institutions shaping it, including reflections on narrative challenges posed by late-1990s events and “Internet Time.”",{"@graph":69,"@context":123},[70,84,106],{"@type":71,"itemListElement":72},"BreadcrumbList",[73,77,79,82],{"item":74,"name":75,"@type":76,"position":8},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":78,"name":9,"@type":76,"position":14},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/",{"item":80,"name":40,"@type":76,"position":81},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/research-report/",3,{"item":83,"name":65,"@type":76,"position":19},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/a-history-of-modern-computing/326368/",{"url":83,"name":65,"@type":85,"image":86,"author":91,"headline":65,"publisher":94,"fileFormat":97,"inLanguage":63,"description":67,"dateModified":98,"datePublished":99,"encodingFormat":97,"isAccessibleForFree":100,"interactionStatistic":101},"DigitalDocument",{"url":87,"@type":88,"width":89,"height":90},"https://docshare.wps.com/thumbnails/a-history-of-modern-computing/326368.png","ImageObject",300,407,{"name":92,"@type":93},"Jiven","Person",{"url":74,"name":95,"@type":96},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-11-10","2026-09-21",true,{"@type":102,"interactionType":103,"userInteractionCount":105},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":104},"ViewAction",24,{"@type":107,"mainEntity":108},"FAQPage",[109,115,119],{"name":110,"@type":111,"acceptedAnswer":112},"What time period does the book cover?","Question",{"text":113,"@type":114},"It spans from the advent of commercial computing in 1945 to developments leading into 1995–2001 and the conclusion on world digitization.","Answer",{"name":116,"@type":111,"acceptedAnswer":117},"How is the book structured?",{"text":118,"@type":114},"Chapters follow a broadly chronological progression, moving through hardware and systems, software history, and networking toward the Internet era.",{"name":120,"@type":111,"acceptedAnswer":121},"Why does the second edition emphasize developments around Internet Explorer and antitrust action?",{"text":122,"@type":114},"The author describes these late-1990s events as major computing developments that threaten to make earlier writing obsolete, and the edition examines them in depth.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":83,"og:type":125,"og:title":65,"og:site_name":95,"og:description":67},"article",{"robots":127,"canonical":83},"index,follow",{"doc_id":129,"site_id":62},326368,1790313871,{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":132},{"doc_id":129,"user_id":133,"nickname":92,"user_avatar":134,"doc_module":4,"category_id":39,"category_name":40,"doc_title":65,"doc_description":67,"doc_content":135,"file_id":136,"file_url":137,"file_type":138,"file_size":139,"view_count":105,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":8,"is_downloadable":8,"audit_status":8,"page_count":140,"language":141,"language_code":63,"site_id":62,"html_lang":63,"table_of_contents":142,"faqs":143,"seo_title":144,"seo_description":67,"update_tm":145,"read_time":146,"preview_page_count":147,"preview_urls":148},1099513958607,"https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/avatar/100002390cf8733938c?x-image-process=image/resize,m_fixed,w_180,h_180&k=1778829742770036399","A History of Modern Computing  \nHistory of Computing  \nI. Bernard Cohen and William Aspray, editors  \nWilliam Aspray, John von Neumann and the Origins of Modern Computing Charles J. Bashe, Lyle R. Johnson, John H. Palmer, and Emerson W. Pugh, IBM’s Early Computers  \nMartin Campbell-Kelly, A History of the Software Industry: From Airline Reservations to Sonic the Hedgehog1  \nPaul E. Ceruzzi, A History of Modern Computing  \nI. Bernard Cohen, Howard Aiken: Portrait of a Computer Pioneer  \nI. Bernard Cohen and Gregory W. Welch, editors, Makin’Numbers: Howard Aiken and the Computer  \nJohn Hendry, Innovating for Failure: Government Policy and the Early British Computer Industry  \nMichael Lindgren, Glory and Failure: The Difference Engines of Johann Mu¨ ller, Charles Babbage, and Georg and Edvard Scheutz  \nDavid E. Lundstrom, A Few Good Men from Univac  \nR. Moreau, The Computer Comes of Age: The People, the Hardware, and the Software Emerson W. Pugh, Building IBM: Shaping an Industry and Its Technology Emerson W. Pugh, Memories That Shaped an Industry  \nEmerson W. Pugh, Lyle R. Johnson, and John H. Palmer, IBM’s 360 and Early 370 Systems  \nKent C. Redmond and Thomas M. Smith, From Whirlwind to MITRE: The R&D Story of the SAGE Air Defense Computer  \nRau´l Rojas and Ulf Hashagen, editors, The First Computers—History and Architectures  \nDorothy Stein, Ada: A Life and a Legacy  \nJohn Vardalas, The Computer Revolution in Canada: Building National Technological Competence, 1945–1980  \nMaurice V. Wilkes, Memoirs of a Computer Pioneer  \nA History of Modern Computing Second edition  \nPaul E. Ceruzzi  \nThe MIT Press Cambridge, Massachusetts London, England  \n\\# 1998, 2003 Massachusetts Institute of Technology  \nAll rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying, recording, or information storage and retrieval) without permission in writing from the publisher.  \nThis book was set in New Baskerville by Techset Composition Ltd., Salisbury, UK, and was printed and bound in the United States of America.  \nLibrary of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data  \nCeruzzi, Paul E.  \nA history of modern computing / Paul E. Ceruzzi.—2nd ed. [p. cm](p. cm).  \nIncludes bibliographical references and index.  \nISBN 0-262-53203-4 (pbk. : alk. paper)  \n1. Computers—History. 2. Electronic data processing—History. I. Title.  \nQA76.17 .C47 2003  \n0040.090049—dc21 2002040799  \n10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1  \nDedication  \nI wrote this book in an office at the Smithsonian Institution’s National Air and Space Museum, one of the busiest public spaces in the world. On a typical summer day there may be upwards of 50,000 visitors to the museum—the population of a small city. These visitors—with their desire to know something of modern technology—were a great inspiration to me. Their presence was a constant reminder that technology isnot just about machines but about people: the people who design and build machines and, more importantly, the people whose lives are profoundly affected by them. It is to these visitors that I respectfully dedicate this book.  \nThis page intentionally left blank  \nContents  \nDedication v  \nPreface to the Second Edition ix Acknowledgments xiii  \nIntroduction: Defining ‘‘Computer’’ 1  \n1  \nThe Advent of Commercial Computing, 1945–1956 13  \n2  \nComputing Comes of Age, 1956–1964 47  \n3  \nThe Early History of Software, 1952–1968 79  \n4  \nFrom Mainframe to Minicomputer, 1959–1969 109  \n5  \nThe ‘‘Go-Go’’ Years and the System/360, 1961–1975 143  \n6  \nThe Chip and Its Impact, 1965–1975 177  \n7  \nThe Personal Computer, 1972–1977 207  \nviii Contents  \n8  \nAugmenting Human Intellect, 1975–1985 243  \n9  \nWorkstations, UNIX, and the Net, 1981–1995 281  \n10  \n‘‘Internet Time,’’ 1995–2001 307  \nConclusion: The Digitization of the World Picture 345  \nNotes 351  \nBibliography 415  \nIndex 431  \nPreface to the Second Edition  \nAs I was completing the manuscript for the first edition of A Hist","cbCaiqtnRa73GkyX","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaiqtnRa73GkyX","pdf",4473165,452,"English","# Contents\n## Dedication\n## Preface to the Second Edition\n## Introduction: Defining \"Computer\"\n## The Advent of Commercial Computing, 1945–1956\n## Computing Comes of Age, 1956–1964\n## The Early History of Software, 1952–1968\n## From Mainframe to Minicomputer, 1959–1969\n## The \"Go-Go\" Years and the System/360, 1961–1975\n## The Chip and Its Impact, 1965–1975\n## The Personal Computer, 1972–1977\n## Augmenting Human Intellect, 1975–1985\n## Workstations, UNIX, and the Net, 1981–1995\n## \"Internet Time,\" 1995–2001\n## Conclusion: The Digitization of the World Picture\n## Notes\n## Bibliography\n## Index","[{\"question\":\"What time period does the book cover?\",\"answer\":\"It spans from the advent of commercial computing in 1945 to developments leading into 1995–2001 and the conclusion on world digitization.\"},{\"question\":\"How is the book structured?\",\"answer\":\"Chapters follow a broadly chronological progression, moving through hardware and systems, software history, and networking toward the Internet era.\"},{\"question\":\"Why does the second edition emphasize developments around Internet Explorer and antitrust action?\",\"answer\":\"The author describes these late-1990s events as major computing developments that threaten to make earlier writing obsolete, and the edition examines them in depth.\"}]","A History of Modern Computing | PDF",1789973966,1139,46,[149,153,157,161,165,169,173,177,181,185,189,194,199,204,209,214,219,224,229,233,237,242,247,252,256,261,266,271,276,281,285,290,295,300,305,310,315,320,325,330,334,339,344,349,354,359],{"page_no":8,"url":150,"width":151,"height":152},"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/ffad07c762c8daf22dd0e81da174dab1.webp",983,1415,{"page_no":14,"url":154,"width":155,"height":156},"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/3e27b8a085245897376fed6ffdac75c5.webp",982,1414,{"page_no":81,"url":158,"width":159,"height":160},"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/756c7623d43f7173ad568ee2c59da53a.webp",981,1412,{"page_no":19,"url":162,"width":163,"height":164},"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/7c53a286d14bfe2a9ff19b6fe7e9713b.webp",980,1411,{"page_no":24,"url":166,"width":167,"height":168},"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/7882cdb187cf52f17fed906f6799bde2.webp",979,1409,{"page_no":29,"url":170,"width":171,"height":172},"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/33bf7b757d60b219e23ac914558070a4.webp",978,1408,{"page_no":34,"url":174,"width":175,"height":176},"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/e7452a4e66dc214529e56c7443c95358.webp",977,1406,{"page_no":39,"url":178,"width":179,"height":180},"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/7503c474d17f401beb4306ea504b20b5.webp",976,1405,{"page_no":44,"url":182,"width":183,"height":184},"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/a63276cd20c3d32b21941d7ca0cb6b95.webp",975,1403,{"page_no":52,"url":186,"width":187,"height":188},"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/da7db3fa8dfe36a52e537c47e7b36667.webp",974,1402,{"page_no":190,"url":191,"width":192,"height":193},11,"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/f70753060a162a099021918a7a360fbc.webp",973,1401,{"page_no":195,"url":196,"width":197,"height":198},12,"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/62b84c3afc15edef0f8e2dcba858d82e.webp",972,1399,{"page_no":200,"url":201,"width":202,"height":203},13,"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/962418d224bfac03071bb413a4f4bfc2.webp",971,1398,{"page_no":205,"url":206,"width":207,"height":208},14,"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/8243f02d80555235ad3ae595b301be43.webp",970,1396,{"page_no":210,"url":211,"width":212,"height":213},15,"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/ba4447875fa406ba0b5f3bf715b86b6e.webp",969,1395,{"page_no":215,"url":216,"width":217,"height":218},16,"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/8aa68aa4949cf3e2525b4bfd8aa7285c.webp",968,1393,{"page_no":220,"url":221,"width":222,"height":223},17,"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/23e9efec5809d9655de498e6c4b801e8.webp",967,1392,{"page_no":225,"url":226,"width":227,"height":228},18,"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/23dbf4c01f54374c8e93531b9d347d8e.webp",966,1391,{"page_no":56,"url":230,"width":231,"height":232},"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/dcf4a3f420b2068d7fb7cf04ccda4f50.webp",965,1389,{"page_no":46,"url":234,"width":235,"height":236},"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/5affa339d726de98d027f508d6875e41.webp",964,1388,{"page_no":238,"url":239,"width":240,"height":241},21,"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/4de3ff381b397b0d4eb2100ffbc6c491.webp",963,1386,{"page_no":243,"url":244,"width":245,"height":246},22,"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/759f44f4b083ef1c4922c72947420568.webp",962,1385,{"page_no":248,"url":249,"width":250,"height":251},23,"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/502d9d2a4f46a2b67ead98e49af7341f.webp",961,1383,{"page_no":105,"url":253,"width":254,"height":255},"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/72c4a1ac2dbb28beac94c8f5d0f04701.webp",960,1382,{"page_no":257,"url":258,"width":259,"height":260},25,"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/d8a539600c1da8d31a114b2935f1390f.webp",959,1380,{"page_no":262,"url":263,"width":264,"height":265},26,"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/553b2f9bf43f5de5576d02be620bf657.webp",958,1379,{"page_no":267,"url":268,"width":269,"height":270},27,"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/0be6d60aa16f35bca7f11a8c02d3bcd7.webp",957,1378,{"page_no":272,"url":273,"width":274,"height":275},28,"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/8e4daf67d4d7ca3f54daaff97692afa2.webp",956,1376,{"page_no":277,"url":278,"width":279,"height":280},29,"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/c4b755151e2be597ad915565573ebfa1.webp",955,1375,{"page_no":41,"url":282,"width":283,"height":284},"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/3d2326c54a02e6d3bdd094c3b139457f.webp",954,1373,{"page_no":286,"url":287,"width":288,"height":289},31,"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/d89f50dd1de2738d7d37dd512a8a97eb.webp",953,1372,{"page_no":291,"url":292,"width":293,"height":294},32,"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/e54293706c2feb2ea61bcaacd454e3cc.webp",952,1370,{"page_no":296,"url":297,"width":298,"height":299},33,"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/62cf74ef49de64eb95f728ad504f3036.webp",951,1369,{"page_no":301,"url":302,"width":303,"height":304},34,"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/2ab788bd354b084aea046602e5a58b16.webp",950,1367,{"page_no":306,"url":307,"width":308,"height":309},35,"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/19ed45c650122016e37a6adac6e6be08.webp",949,1366,{"page_no":311,"url":312,"width":313,"height":314},36,"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/2727b927700e70211dd93b683391e5f1.webp",948,1365,{"page_no":316,"url":317,"width":318,"height":319},37,"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/0b43f06629cf205b0dfd03a354c879f7.webp",947,1363,{"page_no":321,"url":322,"width":323,"height":324},38,"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/4f4f06b8b4300e55bcabfc43994f7378.webp",946,1362,{"page_no":326,"url":327,"width":328,"height":329},39,"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/4322033d5c4114a970f84444d6ccdc2d.webp",945,1360,{"page_no":36,"url":331,"width":332,"height":333},"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/67c2c4027b3916afb877a6834db6ae18.webp",944,1359,{"page_no":335,"url":336,"width":337,"height":338},41,"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/0976d0fb4af01ae84124acf09d35aad3.webp",943,1357,{"page_no":340,"url":341,"width":342,"height":343},42,"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/a780c9518229c99e43059f2fb1568d22.webp",942,1356,{"page_no":345,"url":346,"width":347,"height":348},43,"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/e5079a3956346e94d32bf4bf18431e94.webp",941,1355,{"page_no":350,"url":351,"width":352,"height":353},44,"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/86db4fa21754bd0cb7cedee6b2a49d4f.webp",940,1353,{"page_no":355,"url":356,"width":357,"height":358},45,"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/d73f14f4e3be8b9e99ad51f5a6842418.webp",939,1352,{"page_no":147,"url":360,"width":361,"height":362},"https://res-academy.cache.wpscdn.com/upload/kdocshare/2026-11-08/886faf9b7b8642efe2395bb6e0b5d377.webp",938,1350]