[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"detail-sidebar-cat-0-en-105":3,"doc-seo-382306-105":59,"doc-detail-382306-en":130},{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":6},0,"success",[7,13,18,23,28,33,38,43,48,51,55],{"id":8,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":10,"show_sort_weight":11,"slug":12},1,"Document","Story & Novel",90,"story-novel",{"id":14,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":15,"show_sort_weight":16,"slug":17},2,"Literature",80,"literature",{"id":19,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":20,"show_sort_weight":21,"slug":22},4,"Exam",70,"exam",{"id":24,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":25,"show_sort_weight":26,"slug":27},5,"Comic",60,"comic",{"id":29,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":30,"show_sort_weight":31,"slug":32},6,"Technology",50,"technology",{"id":34,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":35,"show_sort_weight":36,"slug":37},7,"Healthcare",40,"healthcare",{"id":39,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":40,"show_sort_weight":41,"slug":42},8,"Research & Report",30,"research-report",{"id":44,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":45,"show_sort_weight":46,"slug":47},9,"Religion & Spirituality",20,"religion-spirituality",{"id":46,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":49,"show_sort_weight":46,"slug":50},"World Cup","world-cup",{"id":52,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":53,"show_sort_weight":52,"slug":54},10,"Lifestyle","lifestyle",{"id":56,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":57,"show_sort_weight":24,"slug":58},19,"General","general",{"code":4,"msg":60,"data":61},"ok",{"site_id":62,"language":63,"slug":64,"title":65,"keywords":66,"description":67,"schema_data":68,"social_meta":123,"head_meta":125,"extra_data":127,"updated_unix":129},105,"en","3d-cancer-models-one-step-closer-to-in-vitro-human-studies","3D cancer models - One step closer to in vitro human studies","","Cancer immunotherapy delivers prolonged progression-free survival for many patients, but only benefits a minority so far. A key barrier is the shortage of preclinical models that faithfully reproduce the local tumor microenvironment (TME), which governs disease onset, progression, and treatment response. This review maps current 3D TME-relevant platforms, emphasizing spheroids, organoids, and immune Tumor-on-a-Chip approaches, and discusses translational advantages along with open challenges and limitations for high-fidelity patient-tailored modeling and drug discovery.",{"@graph":69,"@context":122},[70,84,105],{"@type":71,"itemListElement":72},"BreadcrumbList",[73,77,79,82],{"item":74,"name":75,"@type":76,"position":8},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":78,"name":9,"@type":76,"position":14},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/",{"item":80,"name":35,"@type":76,"position":81},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/healthcare/",3,{"item":83,"name":65,"@type":76,"position":19},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/3d-cancer-models-one-step-closer-to-in-vitro-human-studies/382306/",{"url":83,"name":65,"@type":85,"image":86,"author":91,"headline":65,"publisher":94,"fileFormat":97,"inLanguage":63,"description":67,"dateModified":98,"datePublished":99,"encodingFormat":97,"isAccessibleForFree":100,"interactionStatistic":101},"DigitalDocument",{"url":87,"@type":88,"width":89,"height":90},"https://docshare.wps.com/thumbnails/3d-cancer-models-one-step-closer-to-in-vitro-human-studies/382306.png","ImageObject",300,407,{"name":92,"@type":93},"Noah","Person",{"url":74,"name":95,"@type":96},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-11-03","2026-09-24",true,{"@type":102,"interactionType":103,"userInteractionCount":39},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":104},"ViewAction",{"@type":106,"mainEntity":107},"FAQPage",[108,114,118],{"name":109,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":111},"Why are 3D tumor models needed for cancer immunotherapy research?","Question",{"text":112,"@type":113},"They help reproduce the tumor microenvironment (TME) more faithfully than simpler systems, and the TME strongly influences disease progression and therapy response.","Answer",{"name":115,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":116},"Which 3D model types are emphasized in the review?",{"text":117,"@type":113},"The review highlights tumor spheroids, organoids, and immune Tumor-on-a-Chip models for disease modeling and therapeutic response evaluation.",{"name":119,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":120},"What major challenge limits the broader clinical impact of cancer immunotherapy?",{"text":121,"@type":113},"The article points to roadblocks including the lack of preclinical models that accurately depict the local TME, contributing to limited patient applicability.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":83,"og:type":124,"og:title":65,"og:site_name":95,"og:description":67},"article",{"robots":126,"canonical":83},"index,follow",{"doc_id":128,"site_id":62},382306,1790829603,{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":131},{"doc_id":128,"user_id":132,"nickname":92,"user_avatar":133,"doc_module":4,"category_id":34,"category_name":35,"doc_title":65,"doc_description":67,"doc_content":134,"file_id":135,"file_url":136,"file_type":137,"file_size":138,"view_count":39,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":8,"is_downloadable":8,"audit_status":8,"page_count":139,"language":140,"language_code":63,"site_id":62,"html_lang":63,"table_of_contents":141,"faqs":142,"seo_title":143,"seo_description":67,"update_tm":144,"read_time":145},8796095462418,"https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/avatar/80000253c1241d02b47?x-image-process=image/resize,m_fixed,w_180,h_180&k=1778826106357471780","TYPE Review  \nPUBLISHED 11 April 2023  \nDOI 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1175503  \nOPEN ACCESS  \nEDITED BY  \nMohit Kumar Jolly,  \nIndian Institute of Science (IISc), India  \nREVIEWED BY  \nVera Svobodova Donnenberg, University of Pittsburgh, United States Valeria Lucarini,  \nBambino Gesù Children ’s Hospital (IRCCS), Italy  \n*CORRESPONDENCE  \nMartina Musella  \n [martina.musella@unicatt.it](martina.musella@unicatt.it);  \n [martinamusella90@gmail.com](martinamusella90@gmail.com)[ ](martinamusella90@gmail.com)Antonella Sistigu  \n [antonella.sistigu@unicatt.it](antonella.sistigu@unicatt.it);  \n [antonella.sistigu@gmail.com](antonella.sistigu@gmail.com)[ ](antonella.sistigu@gmail.com)†These authors share first authorship  \nSPECIALTY SECTION  \nThis article was submitted to Cancer Immunity and Immunotherapy, a section of the journal Frontiers in Immunology  \nRECEIVED 27 February 2023  \nACCEPTED 23 March 2023  \nPUBLISHED 11 April 2023  \nCITATION  \nManduca N, Maccafeo E, De Maria R, Sistigu A and Musella M (2023) 3D cancer models: One step closer to in vitro human studies.  \nFront. Immunol. 14:1175503 .  \ndoi: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1175503  \nCOPYRIGHT  \n© 2023 Manduca, Maccafeo, De Maria, Sistigu and Musella. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the  \nCreative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.  \n3D cancer models: One step closer to in vitro human studies  \nNicoletta Manduca 1†, Ester Maccafeo 1†, Ruggero De Maria 1,2, Antonella Sistigu 1* and Martina Musella 1*  \n1 Dipartimento di Medicina e Chirurgia Traslazionale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy, 2 Fondazione Policlinico Universitario ‘A. Gemelli ’ - Istituti di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), Rome, Italy  \nCancer immunotherapy is the great breakthrough in cancer treatment as it displayed prolonged progression-free survival over conventional therapies, yet, to date, in only a minority of patients. In order to broad cancer immunotherapy clinical applicability some roadblocks need to be overcome, first among all the lack of preclinical models that faithfully depict the local tumor microenvironment (TME), which is known to dramatically affect disease onset, progression and response to therapy. In this review, we provide the reader with a detailed overview of current 3D models developed to mimick the complexity and the dynamics of the TME, with a focus on understanding why the TME is a major target in anticancer therapy. We highlight the advantages and translational potentials of tumor spheroids, organoids and immune Tumor-on-a-Chip models in disease modeling and therapeutic response, while outlining pending challenges and limitations. Thinking forward, we focus on the possibility to integrate the know-hows of micro-engineers, cancer immunologists, pharmaceutical researchers and bioinformaticians to meet the needs of cancer researchers and clinicians interested in using these platforms with high fidelity for patient-tailored disease modeling and drug discovery.  \nKEYWORDS  \ntumor microenvironment, cancer model, spheroids, organoids, microfluidic devices, organ-on-a-chip, drug screening  \nAbbreviations: ACT, adoptive cell therapy; ADCC, antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity; ALI, air-liquid interface; CAF, cancer-associated fibroblast; CAR, chimeric antigen receptor; CEA, carcinoembryonic antigen; CSC, cancer stem cell; CTL, cytotoxic T lymphocyte; DC, dendritic cell; ECM, extracellular matrix; GEMM, genetically engineered mouse model; ICB, immune checkpoint blocker; iToC, immunocompetent Tumor-on-a-Chip; MCTS, multicellular tumor spheroid; NK, natural killer; NSCLS, non-small-cell lung cancer; OoC, Organ-on-a-C","cbCaiv2KPIiiHHbO","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaiv2KPIiiHHbO","pdf",1244655,18,"English","# 1 Introduction\n## Background: limitations of current therapies and the need for personalized approaches\n## Tumor heterogeneity and inadequacy of biopsy-based diagnosis\n# 2 Focus of the review: 3D models of the tumor microenvironment\n## Current 3D TME models and why the TME is a therapeutic target\n## Advantages and translational potential of spheroids, organoids, and Tumor-on-a-Chip\n## Pending challenges and future integration of multidisciplinary expertise","[{\"question\":\"Why are 3D tumor models needed for cancer immunotherapy research?\",\"answer\":\"They help reproduce the tumor microenvironment (TME) more faithfully than simpler systems, and the TME strongly influences disease progression and therapy response.\"},{\"question\":\"Which 3D model types are emphasized in the review?\",\"answer\":\"The review highlights tumor spheroids, organoids, and immune Tumor-on-a-Chip models for disease modeling and therapeutic response evaluation.\"},{\"question\":\"What major challenge limits the broader clinical impact of cancer immunotherapy?\",\"answer\":\"The article points to roadblocks including the lack of preclinical models that accurately depict the local TME, contributing to limited patient applicability.\"}]","3D cancer models - One step closer to in vitro human studies | PDF",1790249955,45]